American Experience (1988–…): Season 14, Episode 2 - New York: Part 7 - The City and the World - full transcript

In the spring of
1944, as the Second World War
dragged into its third long

1944, as the Second World War
dragged into its third long
year, a 26-year-old photographer

dragged into its third long
year, a 26-year-old photographer
and native-born New Yorker named

year, a 26-year-old photographer
and native-born New Yorker named
Helen Levitt carried a 16-

and native-born New Yorker named
Helen Levitt carried a 16-
millimeter movie camera up to

Helen Levitt carried a 16-
millimeter movie camera up to
the crowded tenement district of

millimeter movie camera up to
the crowded tenement district of
East Harlem in New York, once

the crowded tenement district of
East Harlem in New York, once
predominantly Italian but now

East Harlem in New York, once
predominantly Italian but now
increasingly filled with black

predominantly Italian but now
increasingly filled with black
and Spanish-speaking newcomers.

Increasingly filled with black
and Spanish-speaking newcomers.
Over the next three years, with



and Spanish-speaking newcomers.
Over the next three years, with
her friends James Agee and

Over the next three years, with
her friends James Agee and
Janice Loeb, she struggled to

her friends James Agee and
Janice Loeb, she struggled to
capture on film the countless

Janice Loeb, she struggled to
capture on film the countless
daily dramas and heart-stopping

capture on film the countless
daily dramas and heart-stopping
beauty of life in New York's

daily dramas and heart-stopping
beauty of life in New York's
poorest neighborhoods in a film

beauty of life in New York's
poorest neighborhoods in a film
she called simply In the Street.

Poorest neighborhoods in a film
she called simply In the Street.
"The streets of the

she called simply In the Street.
"The streets of the
poorer quarters of great cities

"The streets of the
poorer quarters of great cities
are, above all, a theater and a

poorer quarters of great cities
are, above all, a theater and a
battleground.

Are, above all, a theater and a
battleground.
There, unaware and unnoticed,

battleground.
There, unaware and unnoticed,
every human being is a poet, a

There, unaware and unnoticed,
every human being is a poet, a
masker, a warrior, and in his



every human being is a poet, a
masker, a warrior, and in his
innocent artistry projects

masker, a warrior, and in his
innocent artistry projects
against the turmoil of the

innocent artistry projects
against the turmoil of the
street an image of existence."

against the turmoil of the
street an image of existence."
James Agee.

Street an image of existence."
James Agee.
You say,

James Agee.
You say,
"What is a city?"

Well, a city is many things, but
one of the things that a city is

one of the things that a city is
is a home to its people.
If you think of the great cities

If you think of the great cities
of history, Athens is glory, you
say.

Of history, Athens is glory, you
say.
Rome is grandeur or power.

Say.
Rome is grandeur or power.
Let's say Paris is culture.

Rome is grandeur or power.
Let's say Paris is culture.
What is New York?

Let's say Paris is culture.
What is New York?
New York is a home.

What is New York?
New York is a home.
New York's great gift to the

New York is a home.
New York's great gift to the
world was that people from all

New York's great gift to the
world was that people from all
over the world could come here.

World was that people from all
over the world could come here.
They could create their own

over the world could come here.
They could create their own
communities, their own

They could create their own
communities, their own
neighborhoods.

Communities, their own
neighborhoods.
So people felt a sense of

neighborhoods.
So people felt a sense of
community, a sense of belonging,

So people felt a sense of
community, a sense of belonging,
a sense of neighborhood.

Community, a sense of belonging,
a sense of neighborhood.
That's really the basis of human

a sense of neighborhood.
That's really the basis of human
endeavor.

That's really the basis of human
endeavor.
If people feel that they belong,

endeavor.
If people feel that they belong,
they can go on to other things.

If people feel that they belong,
they can go on to other things.
Now, all of a sudden, that was

they can go on to other things.
Now, all of a sudden, that was
going to be harder for New York

Now, all of a sudden, that was
going to be harder for New York
than ever before because at this

going to be harder for New York
than ever before because at this
crucial moment in the city's

than ever before because at this
crucial moment in the city's
history, the city loses its way.

Crucial moment in the city's
history, the city loses its way.
Whereas before neighborhoods

history, the city loses its way.
Whereas before neighborhoods
were created, now neighborhoods

Whereas before neighborhoods
were created, now neighborhoods
are destroyed.

Were created, now neighborhoods
are destroyed.
I have received this

are destroyed.
I have received this
afternoon a message from the

I have received this
afternoon a message from the
Japanese government in reply to

afternoon a message from the
Japanese government in reply to
the message forwarded to that

Japanese government in reply to
the message forwarded to that
government by the secretary of

the message forwarded to that
government by the secretary of
state on August 11.

Government by the secretary of
state on August 11.
At 7:01 p.m. on the

state on August 11.
At 7:01 p.m. on the
hot, sultry evening of August

At 7:01 p.m. on the
hot, sultry evening of August
14, 1945, after five tense days

hot, sultry evening of August
14, 1945, after five tense days
of conflicting rumors and false

14, 1945, after five tense days
of conflicting rumors and false
reports, word reached New York

of conflicting rumors and false
reports, word reached New York
that the Japanese high command

reports, word reached New York
that the Japanese high command
had surrendered at last,

that the Japanese high command
had surrendered at last,
bringing to an end the bloodiest

had surrendered at last,
bringing to an end the bloodiest
and most costly war in human

bringing to an end the bloodiest
and most costly war in human
history.

And most costly war in human
history.
As the news raced through the

history.
As the news raced through the
city, millions of New Yorkers

As the news raced through the
city, millions of New Yorkers
converged on Times Square,

city, millions of New Yorkers
converged on Times Square,
laughing, shouting, weeping, and

converged on Times Square,
laughing, shouting, weeping, and
embracing in a spontaneous

laughing, shouting, weeping, and
embracing in a spontaneous
celebration that lasted all

embracing in a spontaneous
celebration that lasted all
through the night and on into

celebration that lasted all
through the night and on into
the early hours of the morning.

On August
the 14th when President Truman

the 14th when President Truman
announces the surrender of

announces the surrender of
Japan, I mean, the tumultuous

Japan, I mean, the tumultuous
scenes in the city... of course

scenes in the city... of course
we think of celebrations all

we think of celebrations all
around the United States and

around the United States and
indeed all around the world, but

indeed all around the world, but
no place like Times Square.
That's the moment, that's the

That's the moment, that's the
place where the real end of the
war is announced and celebrated.

Place where the real end of the
war is announced and celebrated.
Twice a month now,

war is announced and celebrated.
Twice a month now,
in the delirious, jubilant days

Twice a month now,
in the delirious, jubilant days
following the close of the war,

in the delirious, jubilant days
following the close of the war,
the two greatest ocean liners in

following the close of the war,
the two greatest ocean liners in
the world, the Queen Mary and

the two greatest ocean liners in
the world, the Queen Mary and
the Queen Elizabeth, which in

the world, the Queen Mary and
the Queen Elizabeth, which in
four years had ferried more than

the Queen Elizabeth, which in
four years had ferried more than
two million men to war, could be

four years had ferried more than
two million men to war, could be
seen steaming into port,

two million men to war, could be
seen steaming into port,
bringing their fragile human

seen steaming into port,
bringing their fragile human
cargo back home.

Bringing their fragile human
cargo back home.
As the great sister ships

cargo back home.
As the great sister ships
entered the Upper Bay, their

As the great sister ships
entered the Upper Bay, their
decks crammed with American

entered the Upper Bay, their
decks crammed with American
soldiers, a gigantic cheer went

decks crammed with American
soldiers, a gigantic cheer went
up at the sight of the ravishing

soldiers, a gigantic cheer went
up at the sight of the ravishing
skyline of New York, which had

up at the sight of the ravishing
skyline of New York, which had
never seemed more precious or

skyline of New York, which had
never seemed more precious or
more filled with promise for the

never seemed more precious or
more filled with promise for the
future.

Every inch of
land in New Jersey and Staten

land in New Jersey and Staten
Island, New York, was crowded

Island, New York, was crowded
with people cheering and the

with people cheering and the
whole thing was such an amazing

whole thing was such an amazing
vision of people brought

vision of people brought
together, which they usually are

together, which they usually are
not in New York, and cheering,

not in New York, and cheering,
you know, "God Bless you boys"...

You know, "God Bless you boys"...
All that stuff.

All that stuff.
DAVID McCULLOUGH: If I could

DAVID McCULLOUGH: If I could
pick a time to be there, I would

pick a time to be there, I would
probably be in the spring of

probably be in the spring of
1946 when the troops were coming

1946 when the troops were coming
home from the war and to have

home from the war and to have
seen the great ocean liners

seen the great ocean liners
loaded to the brim with

loaded to the brim with
returning soldiers from Europe.
We were at the pinnacle then.

We were at the pinnacle then.
New York may have been, not just
the greatest city in the world,

New York may have been, not just
the greatest city in the world,
but that may have been the

the greatest city in the world,
but that may have been the
greatest time in New York.

But that may have been the
greatest time in New York.
With the great

greatest time in New York.
With the great
harbor filled with ships and

With the great
harbor filled with ships and
tens of thousands of factories

harbor filled with ships and
tens of thousands of factories
churning out goods in record

tens of thousands of factories
churning out goods in record
volumes, the halcyon months

churning out goods in record
volumes, the halcyon months
following the end of the war

volumes, the halcyon months
following the end of the war
were in many ways the highest

following the end of the war
were in many ways the highest
point of the city's entire

were in many ways the highest
point of the city's entire
history.

Point of the city's entire
history.
The terrible conflict itself had

history.
The terrible conflict itself had
proved in many ways to be the

The terrible conflict itself had
proved in many ways to be the
city's salvation, lifting at

proved in many ways to be the
city's salvation, lifting at
last the decade-long depression

city's salvation, lifting at
last the decade-long depression
and reconfirming New York's

last the decade-long depression
and reconfirming New York's
status as the unofficial capital

and reconfirming New York's
status as the unofficial capital
of what was now the most

status as the unofficial capital
of what was now the most
powerful nation on earth.

Of what was now the most
powerful nation on earth.
And general, you ain't

powerful nation on earth.
And general, you ain't
seen or heard nothing yet.

And general, you ain't
seen or heard nothing yet.
As Fiorello La

seen or heard nothing yet.
As Fiorello La
Guardia finished his third term

As Fiorello La
Guardia finished his third term
as mayor and as Robert Moses,

Guardia finished his third term
as mayor and as Robert Moses,
unable to build during four long

as mayor and as Robert Moses,
unable to build during four long
years of war, prepared to throw

unable to build during four long
years of war, prepared to throw
himself into a frenzy of

years of war, prepared to throw
himself into a frenzy of
construction, every force that

himself into a frenzy of
construction, every force that
had brought New York to

construction, every force that
had brought New York to
greatness seemed to be operating

had brought New York to
greatness seemed to be operating
at peak capacity.

It was the apex,
the time when it was like

the time when it was like
Imperial Rome, a standard

Imperial Rome, a standard
setter, a trend recognizer, a

setter, a trend recognizer, a
place that translated the world

place that translated the world
to America.
When you look at New York in the

When you look at New York in the
late '40s and early '50s, when
it mattered, it just mattered in

late '40s and early '50s, when
it mattered, it just mattered in
a way that other places didn't.

It mattered, it just mattered in
a way that other places didn't.
Don't... if you come from other

a way that other places didn't.
Don't... if you come from other
places, don't be upset.

Don't... if you come from other
places, don't be upset.
I mean, it just did.

Places, don't be upset.
I mean, it just did.
And it was also a place that was

I mean, it just did.
And it was also a place that was
producing a bewildering array of

And it was also a place that was
producing a bewildering array of
stuff and people were working:

producing a bewildering array of
stuff and people were working:
ladies' hats and musical

stuff and people were working:
ladies' hats and musical
instruments and table lamps and

ladies' hats and musical
instruments and table lamps and
printers' inks and shellac and

instruments and table lamps and
printers' inks and shellac and
sugar and beer and bread and

printers' inks and shellac and
sugar and beer and bread and
skin creams.

Sugar and beer and bread and
skin creams.
The thing about New York was

skin creams.
The thing about New York was
that there was no one thing, you

The thing about New York was
that there was no one thing, you
know, that you said,

that there was no one thing, you
know, that you said,
"Pittsburgh: steel.

Know, that you said,
"Pittsburgh: steel.
Detroit: cars.

"Pittsburgh: steel.
Detroit: cars.
Akron: rubber.

Detroit: cars.
Akron: rubber.
New York: everything."

Akron: rubber.
New York: everything."
And that's why New York really

New York: everything."
And that's why New York really
sort of looked down on the rest

And that's why New York really
sort of looked down on the rest
of America from Olympus... and

sort of looked down on the rest
of America from Olympus... and
the seeds of its downfall might

of America from Olympus... and
the seeds of its downfall might
have been in that as well.

The seeds of its downfall might
have been in that as well.
The core of it

have been in that as well.
The core of it
was that it was still a

The core of it
was that it was still a
manufacturing town, which meant

was that it was still a
manufacturing town, which meant
that people like my father with

manufacturing town, which meant
that people like my father with
an eighth-grade education, Irish

that people like my father with
an eighth-grade education, Irish
immigrant, could first of all

an eighth-grade education, Irish
immigrant, could first of all
form a family and then support

immigrant, could first of all
form a family and then support
it.

Form a family and then support
it.
And that sense that you would

it.
And that sense that you would
get of working men permeated the

And that sense that you would
get of working men permeated the
city.

I remember one of things that I
miss the most was what it felt

miss the most was what it felt
like in the subway between the

like in the subway between the
hours of 5:00 and 7:00 and being

hours of 5:00 and 7:00 and being
on packed subway cars with

on packed subway cars with
working men on those cars... guys

working men on those cars... guys
stained with sweat, the smell of

stained with sweat, the smell of
perspiration, the raw-knuckled

perspiration, the raw-knuckled
hands, tool boxes, heading home.
Nobody would mess with guys like

Nobody would mess with guys like
that and they were very proud in
the fact that they were working

that and they were very proud in
the fact that they were working
in the biggest city in the

the fact that they were working
in the biggest city in the
United States.

In the biggest city in the
United States.
They were functioning people.

United States.
They were functioning people.
And yet, more than

They were functioning people.
And yet, more than
most people realized at the

And yet, more than
most people realized at the
time, in the giddy postwar

most people realized at the
time, in the giddy postwar
atmosphere of triumph and

time, in the giddy postwar
atmosphere of triumph and
success, by 1945, much of the

atmosphere of triumph and
success, by 1945, much of the
fate of the postwar city had

success, by 1945, much of the
fate of the postwar city had
already been written and the

fate of the postwar city had
already been written and the
stage had been set for one of

already been written and the
stage had been set for one of
the most complex and troubling

stage had been set for one of
the most complex and troubling
periods in the city's entire

the most complex and troubling
periods in the city's entire
history.

Periods in the city's entire
history.
The war itself had vastly

history.
The war itself had vastly
accelerated a fateful shift in

The war itself had vastly
accelerated a fateful shift in
power in America, begun during

accelerated a fateful shift in
power in America, begun during
the depression and the New Deal,

power in America, begun during
the depression and the New Deal,
that in the years to come would

the depression and the New Deal,
that in the years to come would
challenge New York's once

that in the years to come would
challenge New York's once
unrivaled claim to economic

challenge New York's once
unrivaled claim to economic
supremacy and alter forever the

unrivaled claim to economic
supremacy and alter forever the
relation of the city and the

supremacy and alter forever the
relation of the city and the
country.

Relation of the city and the
country.
It is true that

country.
It is true that
there was defense spending going

It is true that
there was defense spending going
to New York City, but there was

there was defense spending going
to New York City, but there was
far more of it going to the

to New York City, but there was
far more of it going to the
South and far more of it going

far more of it going to the
South and far more of it going
to the West.

South and far more of it going
to the West.
Huge quantities of money were

to the West.
Huge quantities of money were
flowing to shipbuilding

Huge quantities of money were
flowing to shipbuilding
operations on the West Coast.

Flowing to shipbuilding
operations on the West Coast.
Money was going to develop in

operations on the West Coast.
Money was going to develop in
the Carolinas new modern

Money was going to develop in
the Carolinas new modern
garment-manufacturing facilities

the Carolinas new modern
garment-manufacturing facilities
that'll turn out uniforms, not

garment-manufacturing facilities
that'll turn out uniforms, not
in these crowded little

that'll turn out uniforms, not
in these crowded little
sweatshops, you know?

So while New York comes out of
the war, in a sense, in an

the war, in a sense, in an
unparalleled position of power

unparalleled position of power
and it is now, in a sense, the

and it is now, in a sense, the
capital of the world, these

capital of the world, these
undertows have been operating

undertows have been operating
and the city's long-term

and the city's long-term
position, although it's not

position, although it's not
apparent yet, is in fact going

apparent yet, is in fact going
to be a lot weaker than it had

to be a lot weaker than it had
been going into that war.
Certainly no one

Certainly no one
could have imagined in the
triumphant years following the

could have imagined in the
triumphant years following the
war that in little more than

triumphant years following the
war that in little more than
three decades the mighty

war that in little more than
three decades the mighty
metropolis on the banks of the

three decades the mighty
metropolis on the banks of the
Hudson would be shaken to its

metropolis on the banks of the
Hudson would be shaken to its
very foundations and fighting

Hudson would be shaken to its
very foundations and fighting
for its very existence.

Very foundations and fighting
for its very existence.
Late one night in the waning

for its very existence.
Late one night in the waning
days of December 1945, as

Late one night in the waning
days of December 1945, as
Fiorello La Guardia's third and

days of December 1945, as
Fiorello La Guardia's third and
final term wound quietly to a

Fiorello La Guardia's third and
final term wound quietly to a
close, an aide named Louis

final term wound quietly to a
close, an aide named Louis
Yavner, returning to City Hall

close, an aide named Louis
Yavner, returning to City Hall
to attend to some last-minute

Yavner, returning to City Hall
to attend to some last-minute
paperwork, was surprised to hear

to attend to some last-minute
paperwork, was surprised to hear
the sound of a lone typewriter

paperwork, was surprised to hear
the sound of a lone typewriter
clattering down the darkened

the sound of a lone typewriter
clattering down the darkened
hallway.

Clattering down the darkened
hallway.
In an office at the end of the

hallway.
In an office at the end of the
hall, he found La Guardia

In an office at the end of the
hall, he found La Guardia
himself hunched over his

hall, he found La Guardia
himself hunched over his
secretary's desk.

Himself hunched over his
secretary's desk.
"Hello, Lou," the mayor said.

Secretary's desk.
"Hello, Lou," the mayor said.
"I've got these letters to get

"Hello, Lou," the mayor said.
"I've got these letters to get
out and there was no one else

"I've got these letters to get
out and there was no one else
around.

Out and there was no one else
around.
Can you type?"

around.
Can you type?"
But even La Guardia

Can you type?"
But even La Guardia
wore out.

But even La Guardia
wore out.
The city wore him out.

Wore out.
The city wore him out.
You know, by the end of his

The city wore him out.
You know, by the end of his
third term he was an exhausted,

You know, by the end of his
third term he was an exhausted,
tired man.

Third term he was an exhausted,
tired man.
It had beaten him up, the

tired man.
It had beaten him up, the
process of it.

It had beaten him up, the
process of it.
Remember, this is a city that

process of it.
Remember, this is a city that
almost went bankrupt under... as

Remember, this is a city that
almost went bankrupt under... as
soon as he showed up.

Almost went bankrupt under... as
soon as he showed up.
It's depression New York that he

soon as he showed up.
It's depression New York that he
was the mayor of.

It's depression New York that he
was the mayor of.
And for all of his amazing

was the mayor of.
And for all of his amazing
gifts, that third term was very,

And for all of his amazing
gifts, that third term was very,
very hard for him.

Gifts, that third term was very,
very hard for him.
By the time La

very hard for him.
By the time La
Guardia left office in January

By the time La
Guardia left office in January
1946, to be succeeded by a tough

Guardia left office in January
1946, to be succeeded by a tough
but genial ex-policeman named

1946, to be succeeded by a tough
but genial ex-policeman named
William O'Dwyer, the city he

but genial ex-policeman named
William O'Dwyer, the city he
loved had completely rebounded

William O'Dwyer, the city he
loved had completely rebounded
from the decade-long depression,

loved had completely rebounded
from the decade-long depression,
thanks in large part to the New

from the decade-long depression,
thanks in large part to the New
Deal and the war.

Thanks in large part to the New
Deal and the war.
But La Guardia himself was

Deal and the war.
But La Guardia himself was
already seriously ill with

But La Guardia himself was
already seriously ill with
cancer of the pancreas and less

already seriously ill with
cancer of the pancreas and less
than two years later he died,

cancer of the pancreas and less
than two years later he died,
leaving his wife, Marie, $8,000

than two years later he died,
leaving his wife, Marie, $8,000
in war bonds, and a heavily

leaving his wife, Marie, $8,000
in war bonds, and a heavily
mortgaged house in the Bronx.

In war bonds, and a heavily
mortgaged house in the Bronx.
He was 64 years old.

Mortgaged house in the Bronx.
He was 64 years old.
"A city of which he

He was 64 years old.
"A city of which he
was a part as much as any public

"A city of which he
was a part as much as any public
building awoke to find the

was a part as much as any public
building awoke to find the
little firebrand dead.

Building awoke to find the
little firebrand dead.
Its people had laughed with him

little firebrand dead.
Its people had laughed with him
and at him.

Its people had laughed with him
and at him.
They had been entertained by

and at him.
They had been entertained by
his antics, and they had been

They had been entertained by
his antics, and they had been
sobered by his warnings.

His antics, and they had been
sobered by his warnings.
And they found it difficult to

sobered by his warnings.
And they found it difficult to
believe that the voice he had

And they found it difficult to
believe that the voice he had
raised on their behalf in the

believe that the voice he had
raised on their behalf in the
legislative halls of city and

raised on their behalf in the
legislative halls of city and
nation, on street corners

legislative halls of city and
nation, on street corners
and on the radio, was stilled

nation, on street corners
and on the radio, was stilled
forever."

and on the radio, was stilled
forever."
The New York Times.

Forever."
The New York Times.
More than most

The New York Times.
More than most
people realized, La Guardia's

More than most
people realized, La Guardia's
death marked the end of an era

people realized, La Guardia's
death marked the end of an era
in New York.

Death marked the end of an era
in New York.
Let's

in New York.
Let's
see what Dick Tracy is doing.

Let's
see what Dick Tracy is doing.
For 12 long years

see what Dick Tracy is doing.
For 12 long years
he had struggled to reconcile

For 12 long years
he had struggled to reconcile
two competing visions of the

he had struggled to reconcile
two competing visions of the
city: the shining vision of the

two competing visions of the
city: the shining vision of the
city of tomorrow championed by

city: the shining vision of the
city of tomorrow championed by
men like Robert Moses, beholden

city of tomorrow championed by
men like Robert Moses, beholden
to the car and the highway and

men like Robert Moses, beholden
to the car and the highway and
to forces beyond the city's

to the car and the highway and
to forces beyond the city's
borders, and the old, working

to forces beyond the city's
borders, and the old, working
city of Walt Whitman, Al Smith,

borders, and the old, working
city of Walt Whitman, Al Smith,
and Emma Lazarus... the city of

city of Walt Whitman, Al Smith,
and Emma Lazarus... the city of
the block and the neighborhood

and Emma Lazarus... the city of
the block and the neighborhood
and the crowded urban street

the block and the neighborhood
and the crowded urban street
that, however shabby and rundown

and the crowded urban street
that, however shabby and rundown
in appearance, he had always

that, however shabby and rundown
in appearance, he had always
known was New York's great

in appearance, he had always
known was New York's great
strength, heartbeat, and true

known was New York's great
strength, heartbeat, and true
glory.

Strength, heartbeat, and true
glory.
Without him, in the years to

glory.
Without him, in the years to
come, those two cities would

Without him, in the years to
come, those two cities would
come to seem increasingly

come, those two cities would
come to seem increasingly
incompatible as the forces of

come to seem increasingly
incompatible as the forces of
change unleashed by the war

incompatible as the forces of
change unleashed by the war
pulled New York into the orbit

change unleashed by the war
pulled New York into the orbit
of an immense new order

pulled New York into the orbit
of an immense new order
increasingly indifferent to the

of an immense new order
increasingly indifferent to the
values and beliefs La Guardia

increasingly indifferent to the
values and beliefs La Guardia
had cared for most deeply.

Values and beliefs La Guardia
had cared for most deeply.
After La Guardia was

had cared for most deeply.
After La Guardia was
mayor, he was sitting one day in

After La Guardia was
mayor, he was sitting one day in
the Engineers Club in New York,

mayor, he was sitting one day in
the Engineers Club in New York,
and a friend of his, Walter

the Engineers Club in New York,
and a friend of his, Walter
Binger, came over.

And a friend of his, Walter
Binger, came over.
He said, "Major," which is what

Binger, came over.
He said, "Major," which is what
everyone called La Guardia who

He said, "Major," which is what
everyone called La Guardia who
really knew him, "Major, you're

everyone called La Guardia who
really knew him, "Major, you're
really looking down."

really knew him, "Major, you're
really looking down."
He said, "Robert Moses has too

really looking down."
He said, "Robert Moses has too
much power today."

He said, "Robert Moses has too
much power today."
And Binger, who really disliked

much power today."
And Binger, who really disliked
Moses, said, "Well, who gave it

And Binger, who really disliked
Moses, said, "Well, who gave it
to him, Major?"

Moses, said, "Well, who gave it
to him, Major?"
And La Guardia said, "But I

to him, Major?"
And La Guardia said, "But I
could control him.

And La Guardia said, "But I
could control him.
Now no one will be able to

could control him.
Now no one will be able to
control him."

Now no one will be able to
control him."
By 1945, a bold new

control him."
By 1945, a bold new
attitude towards urban life had

By 1945, a bold new
attitude towards urban life had
begun to come to the fore in New

attitude towards urban life had
begun to come to the fore in New
York and in cities across

begun to come to the fore in New
York and in cities across
America.

York and in cities across
America.
For more than two decades, a

America.
For more than two decades, a
growing number of architects and

For more than two decades, a
growing number of architects and
urban planners, disturbed by the

growing number of architects and
urban planners, disturbed by the
increasing congestion and chaos

urban planners, disturbed by the
increasing congestion and chaos
of the modern city, had been

increasing congestion and chaos
of the modern city, had been
arguing that the old urban order

of the modern city, had been
arguing that the old urban order
of narrow streets and blocks be

arguing that the old urban order
of narrow streets and blocks be
left behind and replaced with an

of narrow streets and blocks be
left behind and replaced with an
entirely new one.

Left behind and replaced with an
entirely new one.
Consecrated to the car and the

entirely new one.
Consecrated to the car and the
highway and the dream of

Consecrated to the car and the
highway and the dream of
infinite mobility, this vision

highway and the dream of
infinite mobility, this vision
of a radiant new city of

infinite mobility, this vision
of a radiant new city of
tomorrow had found its purest

of a radiant new city of
tomorrow had found its purest
expression before the war in the

tomorrow had found its purest
expression before the war in the
awesome public works of Robert

expression before the war in the
awesome public works of Robert
Moses, in the ravishing exhibits

awesome public works of Robert
Moses, in the ravishing exhibits
of the World's Fair, and in the

Moses, in the ravishing exhibits
of the World's Fair, and in the
writings of a visionary Swiss

of the World's Fair, and in the
writings of a visionary Swiss
architect and urban theorist

writings of a visionary Swiss
architect and urban theorist
named Le Corbusier, who had been

architect and urban theorist
named Le Corbusier, who had been
amongst the first to sense that

named Le Corbusier, who had been
amongst the first to sense that
cities themselves had been

amongst the first to sense that
cities themselves had been
rendered completely obsolete by

cities themselves had been
rendered completely obsolete by
the advent of the automobile.

Rendered completely obsolete by
the advent of the automobile.
There's a

the advent of the automobile.
There's a
wonderful passage from Le

There's a
wonderful passage from Le
Corbusier.

He walks out in the streets of
Paris near the university, and

Paris near the university, and
he feels very nostalgic and he

he feels very nostalgic and he
says, "In the good old days,

says, "In the good old days,
when I was a student, we used to

when I was a student, we used to
walk these streets and we would

walk these streets and we would
stand in the middle of the

stand in the middle of the
street and argue.
We could have races with each

We could have races with each
other and we could play games,
but now we're swept away by the

other and we could play games,
but now we're swept away by the
cars."

but now we're swept away by the
cars."
And he's very bitter about that

cars."
And he's very bitter about that
and he says, "What can we do?"

And he's very bitter about that
and he says, "What can we do?"
And then there's, like, a kind

and he says, "What can we do?"
And then there's, like, a kind
of cognitive leap which is, "We

And then there's, like, a kind
of cognitive leap which is, "We
have to somehow merge with the

of cognitive leap which is, "We
have to somehow merge with the
cars.

Have to somehow merge with the
cars.
We have to, if we can,

cars.
We have to, if we can,
completely identify with them

We have to, if we can,
completely identify with them
and forget this paradise lost

completely identify with them
and forget this paradise lost
from our youth when the streets

and forget this paradise lost
from our youth when the streets
belonged to us."

from our youth when the streets
belonged to us."
Because that's the refrain: The

belonged to us."
Because that's the refrain: The
streets belonged to us then.

Because that's the refrain: The
streets belonged to us then.
But if you can forget that and

streets belonged to us then.
But if you can forget that and
repress the part of you that

But if you can forget that and
repress the part of you that
loved the streets and felt at

repress the part of you that
loved the streets and felt at
home in them and that feels very

loved the streets and felt at
home in them and that feels very
angry that you can't... you

home in them and that feels very
angry that you can't... you
know, that there's too much

angry that you can't... you
know, that there's too much
traffic for you now, that you

know, that there's too much
traffic for you now, that you
don't fit in, that, like,

traffic for you now, that you
don't fit in, that, like,
history has surpassed you, you

don't fit in, that, like,
history has surpassed you, you
can make a leap and surpass it.

History has surpassed you, you
can make a leap and surpass it.
And the way that he did was

can make a leap and surpass it.
And the way that he did was
through this concept of the

And the way that he did was
through this concept of the
highway system and the flow that

through this concept of the
highway system and the flow that
would never end and the traffic

highway system and the flow that
would never end and the traffic
that would always be moving.

Would never end and the traffic
that would always be moving.
And what he wanted to do in

that would always be moving.
And what he wanted to do in
Paris and New York was to

And what he wanted to do in
Paris and New York was to
basically kill the street, tear

Paris and New York was to
basically kill the street, tear
it all down, and put up giant

basically kill the street, tear
it all down, and put up giant
slabs connected by highways.

It all down, and put up giant
slabs connected by highways.
And I think he's probably the

slabs connected by highways.
And I think he's probably the
greatest metaphysician of the

And I think he's probably the
greatest metaphysician of the
highway system anywhere, and

greatest metaphysician of the
highway system anywhere, and
Moses was certainly his greatest

highway system anywhere, and
Moses was certainly his greatest
disciple.

Moses was certainly his greatest
disciple.
In the years

disciple.
In the years
following the war, as urban

In the years
following the war, as urban
planners proposed remaking the

following the war, as urban
planners proposed remaking the
city on a breathtaking scale,

planners proposed remaking the
city on a breathtaking scale,
New York would begin to take

city on a breathtaking scale,
New York would begin to take
leave of the past as never

New York would begin to take
leave of the past as never
before and rush headlong into

leave of the past as never
before and rush headlong into
the future.

Before and rush headlong into
the future.
In little more than half a

the future.
In little more than half a
decade, many of the streets and

In little more than half a
decade, many of the streets and
neighborhoods Helen Levitt had

decade, many of the streets and
neighborhoods Helen Levitt had
documented so painstakingly

neighborhoods Helen Levitt had
documented so painstakingly
would be razed to the ground to

documented so painstakingly
would be razed to the ground to
make way for block after block

would be razed to the ground to
make way for block after block
of towering high-rise housing

make way for block after block
of towering high-rise housing
projects.

Of towering high-rise housing
projects.
Le Corbusier himself would

projects.
Le Corbusier himself would
return to New York in the boom

Le Corbusier himself would
return to New York in the boom
years following the war to begin

return to New York in the boom
years following the war to begin
work on an austere new complex

years following the war to begin
work on an austere new complex
of buildings along the East

work on an austere new complex
of buildings along the East
River, determined to turn

of buildings along the East
River, determined to turn
Manhattan itself into a bold new

River, determined to turn
Manhattan itself into a bold new
city of the future.

Manhattan itself into a bold new
city of the future.
"New York is not a

city of the future.
"New York is not a
capital city.

"New York is not a
capital city.
It is not a national capital or

capital city.
It is not a national capital or
a state capital, but is by way

It is not a national capital or
a state capital, but is by way
of becoming the capital of the

a state capital, but is by way
of becoming the capital of the
world.

Of becoming the capital of the
world.
Along the East River, from the

world.
Along the East River, from the
razed slaughterhouses of Turtle

Along the East River, from the
razed slaughterhouses of Turtle
Bay, men are carving out the

razed slaughterhouses of Turtle
Bay, men are carving out the
permanent headquarters of the

Bay, men are carving out the
permanent headquarters of the
United Nations... the greatest

permanent headquarters of the
United Nations... the greatest
housing project of them all.

United Nations... the greatest
housing project of them all.
In its stride, New York takes on

housing project of them all.
In its stride, New York takes on
one more interior city to

In its stride, New York takes on
one more interior city to
shelter, this time, all

one more interior city to
shelter, this time, all
governments and to clear the

shelter, this time, all
governments and to clear the
slum called war."

governments and to clear the
slum called war."
E.B. White.

Slum called war."
E.B. White.
The real shift to

E.B. White.
The real shift to
New York becoming the capital of

The real shift to
New York becoming the capital of
the world comes after World War

New York becoming the capital of
the world comes after World War
II, when the United States

the world comes after World War
II, when the United States
emerges from the conflict as

II, when the United States
emerges from the conflict as
indisputably the most powerful

emerges from the conflict as
indisputably the most powerful
militarily and economic force on

indisputably the most powerful
militarily and economic force on
earth.

Militarily and economic force on
earth.
And I think the placement of the

earth.
And I think the placement of the
United Nations in New York City

And I think the placement of the
United Nations in New York City
kind of symbolizes New York's

United Nations in New York City
kind of symbolizes New York's
emergence as the capital of the

kind of symbolizes New York's
emergence as the capital of the
world.

Emergence as the capital of the
world.
Let's put

world.
Let's put
it this way.

If the United Nations hadn't
come to New York, I think a lot

come to New York, I think a lot
of people would have killed

of people would have killed
themselves, would just have gone

themselves, would just have gone
berserk.
It just seemed the right place

It just seemed the right place
for the United Nations to be.
It wasn't inevitable that it

for the United Nations to be.
It wasn't inevitable that it
would come to New York.

It wasn't inevitable that it
would come to New York.
Le Corbusier, who in many ways

would come to New York.
Le Corbusier, who in many ways
plays the evil spirit in this

Le Corbusier, who in many ways
plays the evil spirit in this
story, didn't want it to come to

plays the evil spirit in this
story, didn't want it to come to
New York.

Story, didn't want it to come to
New York.
And as the leading architect, he

New York.
And as the leading architect, he
had a great say.

And as the leading architect, he
had a great say.
He wanted it to be, if it had to

had a great say.
He wanted it to be, if it had to
be near New York, to be on some

He wanted it to be, if it had to
be near New York, to be on some
estate in Pound Ridge or

be near New York, to be on some
estate in Pound Ridge or
Westchester.

Estate in Pound Ridge or
Westchester.
They looked at all kinds of

Westchester.
They looked at all kinds of
places.

They looked at all kinds of
places.
My god, they even thought of

places.
My god, they even thought of
Philadelphia.

My god, they even thought of
Philadelphia.
Little more than a

Philadelphia.
Little more than a
year after of the end of the

Little more than a
year after of the end of the
war, thanks in large part to the

year after of the end of the
war, thanks in large part to the
immense power of the Rockefeller

war, thanks in large part to the
immense power of the Rockefeller
family and to the administrative

immense power of the Rockefeller
family and to the administrative
genius of Robert Moses, a site

family and to the administrative
genius of Robert Moses, a site
in New York had been settled on

genius of Robert Moses, a site
in New York had been settled on
on the east side of Manhattan,

in New York had been settled on
on the east side of Manhattan,
along the East River.

On the east side of Manhattan,
along the East River.
The startling shapes that soon

along the East River.
The startling shapes that soon
began to arise on a 17-acre

The startling shapes that soon
began to arise on a 17-acre
tract of land called Blood

began to arise on a 17-acre
tract of land called Blood
Alley, once filled with

tract of land called Blood
Alley, once filled with
stockyards and slaughterhouses,

Alley, once filled with
stockyards and slaughterhouses,
were unlike anything ever built

stockyards and slaughterhouses,
were unlike anything ever built
in New York... or anywhere else

were unlike anything ever built
in New York... or anywhere else
for that matter.

In New York... or anywhere else
for that matter.
The slab of glass... a

for that matter.
The slab of glass... a
totally new form developed out

The slab of glass... a
totally new form developed out
of Le Corbusier's earlier work...

Totally new form developed out
of Le Corbusier's earlier work...
sheer slab.

Of Le Corbusier's earlier work...
sheer slab.
He'd never gone so extreme:

sheer slab.
He'd never gone so extreme:
glass facing east and west, no

He'd never gone so extreme:
glass facing east and west, no
windows facing north and south,

glass facing east and west, no
windows facing north and south,
on some kind of idea of solar

windows facing north and south,
on some kind of idea of solar
orientation.

On some kind of idea of solar
orientation.
Then the assembly building with

orientation.
Then the assembly building with
its swooping roof... a new kind

Then the assembly building with
its swooping roof... a new kind
of shape that has nothing to do

its swooping roof... a new kind
of shape that has nothing to do
with the city, has to be in a

of shape that has nothing to do
with the city, has to be in a
park because of its sculptural

with the city, has to be in a
park because of its sculptural
force.

Park because of its sculptural
force.
Basically, there had never been

force.
Basically, there had never been
a building like that seen in New

Basically, there had never been
a building like that seen in New
York or virtually anywhere

a building like that seen in New
York or virtually anywhere
else... all that glass.

York or virtually anywhere
else... all that glass.
It's what everybody has been

else... all that glass.
It's what everybody has been
dreaming about.

It's what everybody has been
dreaming about.
It's what... a little bit of

dreaming about.
It's what... a little bit of
what you could have got a hint

It's what... a little bit of
what you could have got a hint
of if you'd gone to the fair in

what you could have got a hint
of if you'd gone to the fair in
'39, and people are thrilled.

Of if you'd gone to the fair in
'39, and people are thrilled.
The arrival of the

'39, and people are thrilled.
The arrival of the
United Nations was the harbinger

The arrival of the
United Nations was the harbinger
of a new kind of globalism in

United Nations was the harbinger
of a new kind of globalism in
New York.

Of a new kind of globalism in
New York.
By the fall of 1952, as

New York.
By the fall of 1952, as
delegates from around the world

By the fall of 1952, as
delegates from around the world
arrived for the first general

delegates from around the world
arrived for the first general
session in the new headquarters,

arrived for the first general
session in the new headquarters,
a sleek, new, international

session in the new headquarters,
a sleek, new, international
style had begun to transform the

a sleek, new, international
style had begun to transform the
look and feel of central

style had begun to transform the
look and feel of central
Manhattan, not only in

look and feel of central
Manhattan, not only in
architecture and diplomacy, but

Manhattan, not only in
architecture and diplomacy, but
in corporate culture itself.

Architecture and diplomacy, but
in corporate culture itself.
The UN building is

in corporate culture itself.
The UN building is
decisive in reestablishing New

The UN building is
decisive in reestablishing New
York.

Decisive in reestablishing New
York.
And then with the completion of

York.
And then with the completion of
that building, New York enters

And then with the completion of
that building, New York enters
yet another phase of its life

that building, New York enters
yet another phase of its life
and it becomes more than ever

yet another phase of its life
and it becomes more than ever
office capital of the world.

And it becomes more than ever
office capital of the world.
More new office space is built

office capital of the world.
More new office space is built
in New York roughly between 1950

More new office space is built
in New York roughly between 1950
and 1960 than there is in the

in New York roughly between 1950
and 1960 than there is in the
entire of the downtown business

and 1960 than there is in the
entire of the downtown business
district of Chicago... all of it,

entire of the downtown business
district of Chicago... all of it,
not just what was built there,

district of Chicago... all of it,
not just what was built there,
but everything that ever was

not just what was built there,
but everything that ever was
built there.

But everything that ever was
built there.
New York becomes headquarters

built there.
New York becomes headquarters
city.

New York becomes headquarters
city.
Every major corporation, even

city.
Every major corporation, even
more than in the robber-baron

Every major corporation, even
more than in the robber-baron
days, finds that it has to be in

more than in the robber-baron
days, finds that it has to be in
New York, feels that it has to

days, finds that it has to be in
New York, feels that it has to
be in New York, because American

New York, feels that it has to
be in New York, because American
corporations recognize they have

be in New York, because American
corporations recognize they have
to operate on the international

corporations recognize they have
to operate on the international
stage, and New York is the

to operate on the international
stage, and New York is the
logical place.

Stage, and New York is the
logical place.
Even as a gleaming

logical place.
Even as a gleaming
new city of glass and steel

Even as a gleaming
new city of glass and steel
thrust skyward in midtown

new city of glass and steel
thrust skyward in midtown
Manhattan, another kind of

thrust skyward in midtown
Manhattan, another kind of
transformation was underway, far

Manhattan, another kind of
transformation was underway, far
from the white-collar ramparts

transformation was underway, far
from the white-collar ramparts
of Park and Sixth Avenues, as

from the white-collar ramparts
of Park and Sixth Avenues, as
hundreds of thousands of African

of Park and Sixth Avenues, as
hundreds of thousands of African
Americans from the rural south

hundreds of thousands of African
Americans from the rural south
poured into the city's poorest

Americans from the rural south
poured into the city's poorest
neighborhoods looking for work

poured into the city's poorest
neighborhoods looking for work
and a new beginning.

Neighborhoods looking for work
and a new beginning.
"So they came from

and a new beginning.
"So they came from
all parts of the South.

"So they came from
all parts of the South.
The Georgians came as soon as

all parts of the South.
The Georgians came as soon as
they were able to pick train

The Georgians came as soon as
they were able to pick train
fare off the peach trees.

They were able to pick train
fare off the peach trees.
They came from South Carolina

fare off the peach trees.
They came from South Carolina
where the cotton stalks were

They came from South Carolina
where the cotton stalks were
bare.

Where the cotton stalks were
bare.
The North Carolinians came with

bare.
The North Carolinians came with
tobacco tar beneath their

The North Carolinians came with
tobacco tar beneath their
fingernails.

Tobacco tar beneath their
fingernails.
Even while planning the trip,

fingernails.
Even while planning the trip,
they sang spirituals such as

Even while planning the trip,
they sang spirituals such as
'Jesus Take My Hand' and

they sang spirituals such as
'Jesus Take My Hand' and
chanted, 'Hallelujah, I'm on my

'Jesus Take My Hand' and
chanted, 'Hallelujah, I'm on my
way to the promised land.'"

chanted, 'Hallelujah, I'm on my
way to the promised land.'"
Claude Brown.

Way to the promised land.'"
Claude Brown.
By 1950, as the

Claude Brown.
By 1950, as the
great black migration swelled to

By 1950, as the
great black migration swelled to
a flood, another immense influx

great black migration swelled to
a flood, another immense influx
was underway.

A flood, another immense influx
was underway.
Within a year of the end of the

was underway.
Within a year of the end of the
war, the first regularly

Within a year of the end of the
war, the first regularly
scheduled flights had begun

war, the first regularly
scheduled flights had begun
taking off from San Juan Airport

scheduled flights had begun
taking off from San Juan Airport
on the island of Puerto Rico,

taking off from San Juan Airport
on the island of Puerto Rico,
bound for New York City... the

on the island of Puerto Rico,
bound for New York City... the
forerunners of thousands more,

bound for New York City... the
forerunners of thousands more,
as hundreds of thousands of

forerunners of thousands more,
as hundreds of thousands of
Spanish-speaking newcomers

as hundreds of thousands of
Spanish-speaking newcomers
streamed north from the

Spanish-speaking newcomers
streamed north from the
Caribbean, many fleeing

streamed north from the
Caribbean, many fleeing
desperate poverty.

Caribbean, many fleeing
desperate poverty.
"This immigration is

desperate poverty.
"This immigration is
different.

"This immigration is
different.
The Puerto Ricans come not by

different.
The Puerto Ricans come not by
ship, huddled in the steerage,

The Puerto Ricans come not by
ship, huddled in the steerage,
but by plane.

Ship, huddled in the steerage,
but by plane.
Being U.S. citizens, they beat

but by plane.
Being U.S. citizens, they beat
at no immigration bars, never

Being U.S. citizens, they beat
at no immigration bars, never
had their picture taken in

at no immigration bars, never
had their picture taken in
colorful native costume behind

had their picture taken in
colorful native costume behind
the wire enclosures of Ellis

colorful native costume behind
the wire enclosures of Ellis
Island.

The wire enclosures of Ellis
Island.
They simply seeped in, landing

Island.
They simply seeped in, landing
by the 20s and 30s from battered

They simply seeped in, landing
by the 20s and 30s from battered
planes at La Guardia field and

by the 20s and 30s from battered
planes at La Guardia field and
Newark, suddenly appearing

planes at La Guardia field and
Newark, suddenly appearing
beside their cardboard suitcases

Newark, suddenly appearing
beside their cardboard suitcases
on the city's sidewalks outside

beside their cardboard suitcases
on the city's sidewalks outside
a hole-in-the-wall travel

on the city's sidewalks outside
a hole-in-the-wall travel
agency.

A hole-in-the-wall travel
agency.
To them, the U.S. means New York

agency.
To them, the U.S. means New York
City, and 300,000 of them now

To them, the U.S. means New York
City, and 300,000 of them now
live in its five boroughs."

City, and 300,000 of them now
live in its five boroughs."
Time magazine, 1949.

Live in its five boroughs."
Time magazine, 1949.
"Yesterday, it was

Time magazine, 1949.
"Yesterday, it was
the 'brutal and uncouth' Irish.

"Yesterday, it was
the 'brutal and uncouth' Irish.
Then it was the 'knife-wielding'

the 'brutal and uncouth' Irish.
Then it was the 'knife-wielding'
Italians.

Then it was the 'knife-wielding'
Italians.
Later, it was the 'clannish'

Italians.
Later, it was the 'clannish'
Jews with their 'strange' ways.

Later, it was the 'clannish'
Jews with their 'strange' ways.
Yesterday, it was the Negro.

Jews with their 'strange' ways.
Yesterday, it was the Negro.
Today, it is the Puerto Ricans

Yesterday, it was the Negro.
Today, it is the Puerto Ricans
and the Negroes who are

Today, it is the Puerto Ricans
and the Negroes who are
relegated to the last step of

and the Negroes who are
relegated to the last step of
New York's social ladder."

relegated to the last step of
New York's social ladder."
Jesus Colon.

New York's social ladder."
Jesus Colon.
Like their African-

Jesus Colon.
Like their African-
American counterparts, many of

Like their African-
American counterparts, many of
the Puerto Rican newcomers found

American counterparts, many of
the Puerto Rican newcomers found
it increasingly hard to rise,

the Puerto Rican newcomers found
it increasingly hard to rise,
trapped in menial jobs and

it increasingly hard to rise,
trapped in menial jobs and
dilapidated slums by racism and

trapped in menial jobs and
dilapidated slums by racism and
discrimination and by an ominous

dilapidated slums by racism and
discrimination and by an ominous
new trend stealing over the

discrimination and by an ominous
new trend stealing over the
city's blue-collar economy.

New trend stealing over the
city's blue-collar economy.
Within a decade of the end of

city's blue-collar economy.
Within a decade of the end of
the Second World War, it was

Within a decade of the end of
the Second World War, it was
beginning to be clear that New

the Second World War, it was
beginning to be clear that New
York's great industrial engine,

beginning to be clear that New
York's great industrial engine,
for more than a century the

York's great industrial engine,
for more than a century the
first step on the ladder for

for more than a century the
first step on the ladder for
newly-arrived immigrants, had

first step on the ladder for
newly-arrived immigrants, had
started to falter and slow.

Newly-arrived immigrants, had
started to falter and slow.
Far from taking on thousands of

started to falter and slow.
Far from taking on thousands of
new workers each year as in the

Far from taking on thousands of
new workers each year as in the
past, factory owners now often

new workers each year as in the
past, factory owners now often
struggled simply to keep the

past, factory owners now often
struggled simply to keep the
positions they had in the face

struggled simply to keep the
positions they had in the face
of stiff new competition from

positions they had in the face
of stiff new competition from
manufacturers in the South and

of stiff new competition from
manufacturers in the South and
West and the city's own suburbs.

Manufacturers in the South and
West and the city's own suburbs.
The writer Earl

West and the city's own suburbs.
The writer Earl
Shorris in his book,

The writer Earl
Shorris in his book,
Latinos, says that one of the

Shorris in his book,
Latinos, says that one of the
great tragedies of Puerto Ricans

Latinos, says that one of the
great tragedies of Puerto Ricans
in the 20th century is that they

great tragedies of Puerto Ricans
in the 20th century is that they
came to New York of all places.

In the 20th century is that they
came to New York of all places.
Had they come to New York

came to New York of all places.
Had they come to New York
earlier or gone somewhere else

Had they come to New York
earlier or gone somewhere else
when they came to the United

earlier or gone somewhere else
when they came to the United
States, they probably would have

when they came to the United
States, they probably would have
done a lot better.

States, they probably would have
done a lot better.
But they came to a city that was

done a lot better.
But they came to a city that was
just about to begin its

But they came to a city that was
just about to begin its
transition to a postindustrial

just about to begin its
transition to a postindustrial
economy, and they came to be

transition to a postindustrial
economy, and they came to be
industrial workers, and that was

economy, and they came to be
industrial workers, and that was
their undoing.

Industrial workers, and that was
their undoing.
In 1945, 1950, New

their undoing.
In 1945, 1950, New
York seemed literally to be on

In 1945, 1950, New
York seemed literally to be on
top of the world: the largest

York seemed literally to be on
top of the world: the largest
city in the world, the richest

top of the world: the largest
city in the world, the richest
city in the world, the most

city in the world, the richest
city in the world, the most
powerful city in the world, the

city in the world, the most
powerful city in the world, the
capital of the world.

Powerful city in the world, the
capital of the world.
Everything seemed to be working

capital of the world.
Everything seemed to be working
in place.

Everything seemed to be working
in place.
But we now see in retrospect

in place.
But we now see in retrospect
that there were ominous signs on

But we now see in retrospect
that there were ominous signs on
the horizon.

That there were ominous signs on
the horizon.
The first was the loss of

the horizon.
The first was the loss of
industry.

The first was the loss of
industry.
New York City has more than a

industry.
New York City has more than a
million industrial jobs in 1950.

New York City has more than a
million industrial jobs in 1950.
Those jobs, over the next half

million industrial jobs in 1950.
Those jobs, over the next half
century, fall to well below

Those jobs, over the next half
century, fall to well below
200,000.

Century, fall to well below
200,000.
So, essentially, a whole

200,000.
So, essentially, a whole
gigantic sector of New York's

So, essentially, a whole
gigantic sector of New York's
economy leaves.

Gigantic sector of New York's
economy leaves.
In this, New York again is a

economy leaves.
In this, New York again is a
leader.

In this, New York again is a
leader.
We've seen this happen first in

leader.
We've seen this happen first in
cities and then in states and

We've seen this happen first in
cities and then in states and
now for the whole entire United

cities and then in states and
now for the whole entire United
States, as jobs move out where

now for the whole entire United
States, as jobs move out where
there are lower production

States, as jobs move out where
there are lower production
costs... first to the suburbs,

there are lower production
costs... first to the suburbs,
then to the South, then off

costs... first to the suburbs,
then to the South, then off
shore to Asia or wherever.

Then to the South, then off
shore to Asia or wherever.
The loss of

shore to Asia or wherever.
The loss of
industry was the harbinger of an

The loss of
industry was the harbinger of an
even vaster transformation, as

industry was the harbinger of an
even vaster transformation, as
year after year the center of

even vaster transformation, as
year after year the center of
gravity of the entire nation

year after year the center of
gravity of the entire nation
continued to shift away from New

gravity of the entire nation
continued to shift away from New
York and away from older urban

continued to shift away from New
York and away from older urban
places everywhere, as a massive

York and away from older urban
places everywhere, as a massive
new economic order finished

places everywhere, as a massive
new economic order finished
taking hold, linked to the

new economic order finished
taking hold, linked to the
highway and the automobile and

taking hold, linked to the
highway and the automobile and
incompatible with the structure

highway and the automobile and
incompatible with the structure
of cities as they had existed

incompatible with the structure
of cities as they had existed
for hundreds of years.

Of cities as they had existed
for hundreds of years.
Well, I think the

for hundreds of years.
Well, I think the
Second World War changes the

Well, I think the
Second World War changes the
ball game and creates an economy

Second World War changes the
ball game and creates an economy
on an enormous scale that really

ball game and creates an economy
on an enormous scale that really
dwarfs anything that's existed

on an enormous scale that really
dwarfs anything that's existed
before.

Dwarfs anything that's existed
before.
And after the war you get

before.
And after the war you get
a permanent war economy.

And after the war you get
a permanent war economy.
On one hand, it's an industrial

a permanent war economy.
On one hand, it's an industrial
bonanza.

On one hand, it's an industrial
bonanza.
But New York was almost entirely

bonanza.
But New York was almost entirely
left out of this because it's

But New York was almost entirely
left out of this because it's
really very hard to build

left out of this because it's
really very hard to build
aircraft factories, say, in or

really very hard to build
aircraft factories, say, in or
close to New York or any other

aircraft factories, say, in or
close to New York or any other
city.

Close to New York or any other
city.
The sense of space is completely

city.
The sense of space is completely
different.

The sense of space is completely
different.
Whereas the grid involves

different.
Whereas the grid involves
bringing people together and

Whereas the grid involves
bringing people together and
creating concentration

bringing people together and
creating concentration
vertically going up, the war

creating concentration
vertically going up, the war
economy and the highway system

vertically going up, the war
economy and the highway system
built in the Eisenhower period

economy and the highway system
built in the Eisenhower period
builds across.

Built in the Eisenhower period
builds across.
And it depends on these enormous

builds across.
And it depends on these enormous
horizontal units and on one hand

And it depends on these enormous
horizontal units and on one hand
creates bonanzas in many areas

horizontal units and on one hand
creates bonanzas in many areas
that were pretty distressed, and

creates bonanzas in many areas
that were pretty distressed, and
on the other hand draws talent,

that were pretty distressed, and
on the other hand draws talent,
energy, and money... enormous

on the other hand draws talent,
energy, and money... enormous
amounts of money... away from

energy, and money... enormous
amounts of money... away from
areas like New York.

Amounts of money... away from
areas like New York.
In the years to

areas like New York.
In the years to
come, as the entire nation was

In the years to
come, as the entire nation was
integrated into a unified flow

come, as the entire nation was
integrated into a unified flow
whose lifeblood, one man later

integrated into a unified flow
whose lifeblood, one man later
said, was the automobile, the

whose lifeblood, one man later
said, was the automobile, the
dense fabric of older urban

said, was the automobile, the
dense fabric of older urban
places and the very concept of

dense fabric of older urban
places and the very concept of
urban public space itself would

places and the very concept of
urban public space itself would
begin to come under attack as

urban public space itself would
begin to come under attack as
never before, as cities like New

begin to come under attack as
never before, as cities like New
York were increasingly seen as

never before, as cities like New
York were increasingly seen as
places to escape from or as

York were increasingly seen as
places to escape from or as
problems to be solved or as

places to escape from or as
problems to be solved or as
landscapes to be transformed.

Problems to be solved or as
landscapes to be transformed.
To a remarkable degree, the man

landscapes to be transformed.
To a remarkable degree, the man
in the middle of the whirlwind

To a remarkable degree, the man
in the middle of the whirlwind
of forces sweeping through New

in the middle of the whirlwind
of forces sweeping through New
York in the postwar period was

of forces sweeping through New
York in the postwar period was
the driven, insatiable builder

York in the postwar period was
the driven, insatiable builder
who by 1945 had been

the driven, insatiable builder
who by 1945 had been
transforming the city for almost

who by 1945 had been
transforming the city for almost
20 years... Robert Moses.

Transforming the city for almost
20 years... Robert Moses.
If you saw Moses

20 years... Robert Moses.
If you saw Moses
standing in front of a map with

If you saw Moses
standing in front of a map with
his pencil going over it in

standing in front of a map with
his pencil going over it in
sweeping gestures, you would see

his pencil going over it in
sweeping gestures, you would see
the dreamer, the visionary, the

sweeping gestures, you would see
the dreamer, the visionary, the
artist.

The dreamer, the visionary, the
artist.
He saw New York... and of course,

artist.
He saw New York... and of course,
by "New York" I mean New York

He saw New York... and of course,
by "New York" I mean New York
and its suburbs... 2,100 square

by "New York" I mean New York
and its suburbs... 2,100 square
miles, right?

And its suburbs... 2,100 square
miles, right?
An area in which when he was

miles, right?
An area in which when he was
building, 12 million people

An area in which when he was
building, 12 million people
lived.

Building, 12 million people
lived.
He saw this all as a canvas.

Lived.
He saw this all as a canvas.
He was going to build his roads

He saw this all as a canvas.
He was going to build his roads
across it.

He was going to build his roads
across it.
He was going to build his roads

across it.
He was going to build his roads
around it.

He was going to build his roads
around it.
There were going to be parks

around it.
There were going to be parks
here and parks there.

There were going to be parks
here and parks there.
"And you see, then we're going

here and parks there.
"And you see, then we're going
to have public housing here, so

"And you see, then we're going
to have public housing here, so
we'll do this."

to have public housing here, so
we'll do this."
He saw the whole thing as one

we'll do this."
He saw the whole thing as one
great mural, you know.

He saw the whole thing as one
great mural, you know.
One huge, wonderful mural.

Great mural, you know.
One huge, wonderful mural.
It all had the unity, the unity

One huge, wonderful mural.
It all had the unity, the unity
of a vision, and that is the

It all had the unity, the unity
of a vision, and that is the
vision to which New York and its

of a vision, and that is the
vision to which New York and its
suburbs were shaped.

Vision to which New York and its
suburbs were shaped.
I am privileged to

suburbs were shaped.
I am privileged to
present the winner of the Grand

I am privileged to
present the winner of the Grand
National Award, Robert Moses of

present the winner of the Grand
National Award, Robert Moses of
New York.

National Award, Robert Moses of
New York.

- New York.
- No one embodied the

No one embodied the
power and promise of postwar New

No one embodied the
power and promise of postwar New
York more than Robert Moses, the

power and promise of postwar New
York more than Robert Moses, the
visionary administrator who had

York more than Robert Moses, the
visionary administrator who had
rebuilt the city in the depths

visionary administrator who had
rebuilt the city in the depths
of the depression.

Rebuilt the city in the depths
of the depression.
Intent on uniting the immense

of the depression.
Intent on uniting the immense
metropolis into a single

Intent on uniting the immense
metropolis into a single
coherent whole and linking it to

metropolis into a single
coherent whole and linking it to
the rest of the nation by

coherent whole and linking it to
the rest of the nation by
highways, he had accomplished

the rest of the nation by
highways, he had accomplished
more in 20 years than most men

highways, he had accomplished
more in 20 years than most men
dreamed of in a lifetime.

More in 20 years than most men
dreamed of in a lifetime.
And now with the vastly

dreamed of in a lifetime.
And now with the vastly
increased resources of the

And now with the vastly
increased resources of the
federal government behind him,

increased resources of the
federal government behind him,
he looked forward to realizing

federal government behind him,
he looked forward to realizing
his vision on an even vaster

he looked forward to realizing
his vision on an even vaster
scale.

His vision on an even vaster
scale.
The tragedy, in the end, would

scale.
The tragedy, in the end, would
be that such a man and such an

The tragedy, in the end, would
be that such a man and such an
era should have held out such

be that such a man and such an
era should have held out such
great promise and that so much

era should have held out such
great promise and that so much
of it should have gone so

great promise and that so much
of it should have gone so
terribly astray.

Of it should have gone so
terribly astray.
Immediately after the

terribly astray.
Immediately after the
Second World War, Robert Moses's

Immediately after the
Second World War, Robert Moses's
power increased exponentially to

Second World War, Robert Moses's
power increased exponentially to
something far greater than

power increased exponentially to
something far greater than
before.

Something far greater than
before.
Its base was still these

before.
Its base was still these
revenues... the toll revenues

Its base was still these
revenues... the toll revenues
from all his bridges and all his

revenues... the toll revenues
from all his bridges and all his
tunnels, which, of course, were

from all his bridges and all his
tunnels, which, of course, were
increasing as he was building

tunnels, which, of course, were
increasing as he was building
more.

Increasing as he was building
more.
But he now gets control of the

more.
But he now gets control of the
city housing authority.

But he now gets control of the
city housing authority.
Huge moneys are now being spent

city housing authority.
Huge moneys are now being spent
by the federal government on

Huge moneys are now being spent
by the federal government on
public housing, low-income

by the federal government on
public housing, low-income
housing.

Public housing, low-income
housing.
In New York, those moneys were

housing.
In New York, those moneys were
spent at the command of Robert

In New York, those moneys were
spent at the command of Robert
Moses.

Spent at the command of Robert
Moses.
Up to that point, Robert Moses

Moses.
Up to that point, Robert Moses
had been building mostly parks

Up to that point, Robert Moses
had been building mostly parks
and bridges and parkways.

Had been building mostly parks
and bridges and parkways.
He was building these on a

and bridges and parkways.
He was building these on a
tabula rasa... on the open spaces

He was building these on a
tabula rasa... on the open spaces
of Long Island, on Jones Beach,

tabula rasa... on the open spaces
of Long Island, on Jones Beach,
where there was nothing there.

Of Long Island, on Jones Beach,
where there was nothing there.
Now he's going to be building in

where there was nothing there.
Now he's going to be building in
the city... not on an empty

Now he's going to be building in
the city... not on an empty
canvas, but on the most crowded

the city... not on an empty
canvas, but on the most crowded
canvas in the world.

Canvas, but on the most crowded
canvas in the world.
That was going to make all the

canvas in the world.
That was going to make all the
difference.

That was going to make all the
difference.
It was going to make the story

difference.
It was going to make the story
of Robert Moses become very

It was going to make the story
of Robert Moses become very
dark, because whether he was

of Robert Moses become very
dark, because whether he was
building in an area with no

dark, because whether he was
building in an area with no
people or an area filled with

building in an area with no
people or an area filled with
people, Robert Moses was going

people or an area filled with
people, Robert Moses was going
to build.

People, Robert Moses was going
to build.
"If you want to create public

to build.
"If you want to create public
works in a crowded metropolis,"

"If you want to create public
works in a crowded metropolis,"
he said, "you have to swing the

works in a crowded metropolis,"
he said, "you have to swing the
meat ax."

he said, "you have to swing the
meat ax."
And he liked swinging the meat

meat ax."
And he liked swinging the meat
ax.

And he liked swinging the meat
ax.
I enjoy getting

ax.
I enjoy getting
things done...

I enjoy getting
things done...
And if that means...

things done...
And if that means...
getting rid of

And if that means...
Getting rid of
obstacles that are in the way by

Getting rid of
obstacles that are in the way by
whatever means.

Obstacles that are in the way by
whatever means.
And if that means being

whatever means.
And if that means being
a little lonely along the way,

And if that means being
a little lonely along the way,
you will put up with that

a little lonely along the way,
you will put up with that
temporarily, right?

You will put up with that
temporarily, right?
Yes, and make as few

temporarily, right?
Yes, and make as few
compromises as possible.

Yes, and make as few
compromises as possible.
Izzy Rummel had a very funny

compromises as possible.
Izzy Rummel had a very funny
phrase, a little bit on the

Izzy Rummel had a very funny
phrase, a little bit on the
cynical side, and there's a

phrase, a little bit on the
cynical side, and there's a
grain of truth in it.

Cynical side, and there's a
grain of truth in it.
He said, "If the end doesn't

grain of truth in it.
He said, "If the end doesn't
justify the means, what does?"

He said, "If the end doesn't
justify the means, what does?"
No one could have

justify the means, what does?"
No one could have
predicted the magnitude of the

No one could have
predicted the magnitude of the
explosion that would overtake

predicted the magnitude of the
explosion that would overtake
New York in the decades

explosion that would overtake
New York in the decades
following World War II.

New York in the decades
following World War II.
Great as was the federal

following World War II.
Great as was the federal
involvement in public works

Great as was the federal
involvement in public works
before the war, it was nothing

involvement in public works
before the war, it was nothing
compared to the massive new

before the war, it was nothing
compared to the massive new
initiatives signed into law as

compared to the massive new
initiatives signed into law as
soon as it was ended, not only

initiatives signed into law as
soon as it was ended, not only
for highways, but for housing

soon as it was ended, not only
for highways, but for housing
and urban development,

for highways, but for housing
and urban development,
propelling changes on a scale

and urban development,
propelling changes on a scale
city planners had scarcely

propelling changes on a scale
city planners had scarcely
dreamed of only a few years

city planners had scarcely
dreamed of only a few years
earlier.

Dreamed of only a few years
earlier.
Eager to extend his dominion

earlier.
Eager to extend his dominion
over every public construction

Eager to extend his dominion
over every public construction
project in the city, Robert

over every public construction
project in the city, Robert
Moses quickly moved to wrest

project in the city, Robert
Moses quickly moved to wrest
control of the new federal funds

Moses quickly moved to wrest
control of the new federal funds
before the ink was even dry on

control of the new federal funds
before the ink was even dry on
the new legislation.

Before the ink was even dry on
the new legislation.
He says, "I'd like to

the new legislation.
He says, "I'd like to
be construction coordinator.

He says, "I'd like to
be construction coordinator.
By the way, I have a bill here

be construction coordinator.
By the way, I have a bill here
that the legislature will pass

By the way, I have a bill here
that the legislature will pass
creating the office of

that the legislature will pass
creating the office of
construction coordinator."

creating the office of
construction coordinator."
Nobody realizes that there is a

construction coordinator."
Nobody realizes that there is a
sentence in there that says that

Nobody realizes that there is a
sentence in there that says that
the construction coordinator

sentence in there that says that
the construction coordinator
shall... no choice... shall

the construction coordinator
shall... no choice... shall
represent the city in all its

shall... no choice... shall
represent the city in all its
dealings with the federal

represent the city in all its
dealings with the federal
government.

Dealings with the federal
government.
That means that any city request

government.
That means that any city request
for federal money is going to go

That means that any city request
for federal money is going to go
through the office of

for federal money is going to go
through the office of
construction coordinator.

Through the office of
construction coordinator.
And he therefore has control

construction coordinator.
And he therefore has control
over public housing.

And he therefore has control
over public housing.
He has control over the federal

over public housing.
He has control over the federal
highway money.

He has control over the federal
highway money.
And something much huger is

highway money.
And something much huger is
about to happen.

And something much huger is
about to happen.
One day in the end of 1948, an

about to happen.
One day in the end of 1948, an
old classmate of Moses's from

One day in the end of 1948, an
old classmate of Moses's from
Yale, Robert Taft... Senator

old classmate of Moses's from
Yale, Robert Taft... Senator
Robert Taft... comes down to talk

Yale, Robert Taft... Senator
Robert Taft... comes down to talk
to Robert Moses about a new

Robert Taft... comes down to talk
to Robert Moses about a new
proposal that's going through

to Robert Moses about a new
proposal that's going through
the Senate of the United States.

Proposal that's going through
the Senate of the United States.
"We're going to call it Title

the Senate of the United States.
"We're going to call it Title
One.

"We're going to call it Title
One.
It's the slum-clearance program,

One.
It's the slum-clearance program,
the urban-renewal program."

It's the slum-clearance program,
the urban-renewal program."
Moses had this mind that leaped

the urban-renewal program."
Moses had this mind that leaped
at power like a terrier.

Moses had this mind that leaped
at power like a terrier.
As soon as Taft leaves his

at power like a terrier.
As soon as Taft leaves his
office, he is drafting the

As soon as Taft leaves his
office, he is drafting the
necessary documents so that the

office, he is drafting the
necessary documents so that the
mayor will have a Slum Clearance

necessary documents so that the
mayor will have a Slum Clearance
Committee, Robert Moses

mayor will have a Slum Clearance
Committee, Robert Moses
chairman.

Committee, Robert Moses
chairman.
There had been

chairman.
There had been
housing programs before and

There had been
housing programs before and
attempts to clear the slums, but

housing programs before and
attempts to clear the slums, but
never on this scale.

Attempts to clear the slums, but
never on this scale.
Intended, in part, to relieve

never on this scale.
Intended, in part, to relieve
the severe postwar housing

Intended, in part, to relieve
the severe postwar housing
crisis and to provide affordable

the severe postwar housing
crisis and to provide affordable
housing for the poor, the bill's

crisis and to provide affordable
housing for the poor, the bill's
first section, known forever

housing for the poor, the bill's
first section, known forever
after as Title One, would go on

first section, known forever
after as Title One, would go on
to become one of the most

after as Title One, would go on
to become one of the most
controversial and in many ways

to become one of the most
controversial and in many ways
catastrophic federal programs

controversial and in many ways
catastrophic federal programs
ever visited upon city dwellers

catastrophic federal programs
ever visited upon city dwellers
anywhere.

Ever visited upon city dwellers
anywhere.
The bottom line for

anywhere.
The bottom line for
the urban-renewal program is

The bottom line for
the urban-renewal program is
that the federal government is

the urban-renewal program is
that the federal government is
going to pay for the city to use

that the federal government is
going to pay for the city to use
its power of eminent domain to

going to pay for the city to use
its power of eminent domain to
confiscate land and to assemble

its power of eminent domain to
confiscate land and to assemble
large parcels of land from lots

confiscate land and to assemble
large parcels of land from lots
of little, sort of, slum owners

large parcels of land from lots
of little, sort of, slum owners
in, sort of, blighted, rundown

of little, sort of, slum owners
in, sort of, blighted, rundown
areas.

In, sort of, blighted, rundown
areas.
Then they're going to tear down

areas.
Then they're going to tear down
that land, and they're going to

Then they're going to tear down
that land, and they're going to
give it to private developers to

that land, and they're going to
give it to private developers to
build housing on, theoretically

give it to private developers to
build housing on, theoretically
for poor people.

Build housing on, theoretically
for poor people.
In the real world, that's not

for poor people.
In the real world, that's not
the way it works out.

In the real world, that's not
the way it works out.
In the real world, you get a

the way it works out.
In the real world, you get a
constellation of different kinds

In the real world, you get a
constellation of different kinds
of players who have got an

constellation of different kinds
of players who have got an
interest in becoming the

of players who have got an
interest in becoming the
developers who acquire Title One

interest in becoming the
developers who acquire Title One
land.

Developers who acquire Title One
land.
There's a huge range of

land.
There's a huge range of
possibilities, but all of these

There's a huge range of
possibilities, but all of these
people share one thing in

possibilities, but all of these
people share one thing in
common: they're not interested

people share one thing in
common: they're not interested
in building housing for poor

common: they're not interested
in building housing for poor
people.

In building housing for poor
people.
They're interested in building

people.
They're interested in building
housing, at the least, for

They're interested in building
housing, at the least, for
middle-class people.

Housing, at the least, for
middle-class people.
And in fact, they're also

middle-class people.
And in fact, they're also
particularly not interested in

And in fact, they're also
particularly not interested in
housing for blacks and

particularly not interested in
housing for blacks and
Hispanics, who are increasingly

housing for blacks and
Hispanics, who are increasingly
in the postwar period a growing

Hispanics, who are increasingly
in the postwar period a growing
percentage of the population

in the postwar period a growing
percentage of the population
most in need of housing.

Percentage of the population
most in need of housing.
Hailed as a victory

most in need of housing.
Hailed as a victory
for the working poor, Title One

Hailed as a victory
for the working poor, Title One
quickly proved to be an enormous

for the working poor, Title One
quickly proved to be an enormous
bonanza, not for those most in

quickly proved to be an enormous
bonanza, not for those most in
need, but for landowners and

bonanza, not for those most in
need, but for landowners and
real-estate developers who,

need, but for landowners and
real-estate developers who,
under provisions of the act,

real-estate developers who,
under provisions of the act,
were not required to build

under provisions of the act,
were not required to build
housing slum dwellers could

were not required to build
housing slum dwellers could
afford... or even to build new

housing slum dwellers could
afford... or even to build new
housing at all.

Afford... or even to build new
housing at all.
Despite solemn assurances to the

housing at all.
Despite solemn assurances to the
contrary, few of those evicted

Despite solemn assurances to the
contrary, few of those evicted
under Title One found housing in

contrary, few of those evicted
under Title One found housing in
the neighborhoods they had once

under Title One found housing in
the neighborhoods they had once
called home.

The neighborhoods they had once
called home.
Many were not rehoused at all.

Called home.
Many were not rehoused at all.
And many of those that were

Many were not rehoused at all.
And many of those that were
found themselves relocated to

And many of those that were
found themselves relocated to
massive new low-income housing

found themselves relocated to
massive new low-income housing
projects thrown up in districts

massive new low-income housing
projects thrown up in districts
segregated as never before by

projects thrown up in districts
segregated as never before by
race and class.

Segregated as never before by
race and class.
The reality of it

race and class.
The reality of it
was that it was a massive

The reality of it
was that it was a massive
program of removal of, usually,

was that it was a massive
program of removal of, usually,
the people who had the least

program of removal of, usually,
the people who had the least
political clout, and those

the people who had the least
political clout, and those
tended to be blacks and

political clout, and those
tended to be blacks and
Hispanics and working-class Jews

tended to be blacks and
Hispanics and working-class Jews
and working-class Italians.

Hispanics and working-class Jews
and working-class Italians.
Now, the man at the center of

and working-class Italians.
Now, the man at the center of
this operation is Robert Moses.

Now, the man at the center of
this operation is Robert Moses.
Moses is the coordinator of all

this operation is Robert Moses.
Moses is the coordinator of all
these Title One programs, and

Moses is the coordinator of all
these Title One programs, and
Moses is cutting deals left and

these Title One programs, and
Moses is cutting deals left and
right.

Moses is cutting deals left and
right.
By 1959 there are 16 huge Title

right.
By 1959 there are 16 huge Title
One projects that have been

By 1959 there are 16 huge Title
One projects that have been
completed.

One projects that have been
completed.
They have moved out roughly

completed.
They have moved out roughly
100,000 poor people.

They have moved out roughly
100,000 poor people.
Robert Moses

100,000 poor people.
Robert Moses
personified an age where the

Robert Moses
personified an age where the
interests of working-class and

personified an age where the
interests of working-class and
poor people were very easily

interests of working-class and
poor people were very easily
dismissed as secondary to the

poor people were very easily
dismissed as secondary to the
interests of middle-class,

dismissed as secondary to the
interests of middle-class,
upper-middle-class, and wealthy

interests of middle-class,
upper-middle-class, and wealthy
people.

Upper-middle-class, and wealthy
people.
So if it meant tearing down

people.
So if it meant tearing down
hundreds of old brownstone

So if it meant tearing down
hundreds of old brownstone
tenements to build a new

hundreds of old brownstone
tenements to build a new
performing-arts center, that was

tenements to build a new
performing-arts center, that was
going to happen.

Performing-arts center, that was
going to happen.
If it meant clearing land in the

going to happen.
If it meant clearing land in the
hope that commercial developers

If it meant clearing land in the
hope that commercial developers
would want to come in and build

hope that commercial developers
would want to come in and build
skyscrapers instead, then that's

would want to come in and build
skyscrapers instead, then that's
what you did.

Skyscrapers instead, then that's
what you did.
And often when really poor

what you did.
And often when really poor
communities were fragmented in

And often when really poor
communities were fragmented in
this way, where did they go?

Communities were fragmented in
this way, where did they go?
They went to the next

this way, where did they go?
They went to the next
neighborhood over.

They went to the next
neighborhood over.
They went to the next

neighborhood over.
They went to the next
neighborhood that might be

They went to the next
neighborhood that might be
showing some signs of weakness

neighborhood that might be
showing some signs of weakness
in the rental market, might be

showing some signs of weakness
in the rental market, might be
showing some signs of weakness

in the rental market, might be
showing some signs of weakness
in the housing market.

Showing some signs of weakness
in the housing market.
And the problems of one

in the housing market.
And the problems of one
neighborhood became the problems

And the problems of one
neighborhood became the problems
of another far away.

One of
the things that Moses does, to

the things that Moses does, to
his shame, is he fills the Slum

his shame, is he fills the Slum
Clearance Committee with a bunch

Clearance Committee with a bunch
of his banker and insurance and

of his banker and insurance and
developer friends.

Developer friends.
And they begin to use the Slum

And they begin to use the Slum
Clearance Committee's power,

Clearance Committee's power,
public power, to remove nonwhite

public power, to remove nonwhite
people from areas where the

people from areas where the
developers want to create white

developers want to create white
neighborhoods.
The result is that they uproot

The result is that they uproot
hundreds and thousands of black
New Yorkers and force them into

hundreds and thousands of black
New Yorkers and force them into
these expanding ghettoes in

New Yorkers and force them into
these expanding ghettoes in
Bedford-Stuyvesant and Harlem.

These expanding ghettoes in
Bedford-Stuyvesant and Harlem.
As striking as the

Bedford-Stuyvesant and Harlem.
As striking as the
racial politics of the slum-

As striking as the
racial politics of the slum-
clearance program was its

racial politics of the slum-
clearance program was its
staggering scale.

Clearance program was its
staggering scale.
Convinced that partial

staggering scale.
Convinced that partial
reconstruction of targeted

Convinced that partial
reconstruction of targeted
neighborhoods was doomed from

reconstruction of targeted
neighborhoods was doomed from
the start, Title One made slum-

neighborhoods was doomed from
the start, Title One made slum-
clearance funds available on one

the start, Title One made slum-
clearance funds available on one
condition: that nearly every

clearance funds available on one
condition: that nearly every
structure in a designated area

condition: that nearly every
structure in a designated area
be destroyed.

Structure in a designated area
be destroyed.
Over the next 15 years, the

be destroyed.
Over the next 15 years, the
maelstrom of destruction that

Over the next 15 years, the
maelstrom of destruction that
would go forward in New York in

maelstrom of destruction that
would go forward in New York in
the name of urban renewal would

would go forward in New York in
the name of urban renewal would
dwarf anything that had come

the name of urban renewal would
dwarf anything that had come
before in the city's history, as

dwarf anything that had come
before in the city's history, as
thousands of acres of teeming

before in the city's history, as
thousands of acres of teeming
city blocks were reduced to

thousands of acres of teeming
city blocks were reduced to
giant swaths of rubble.

City blocks were reduced to
giant swaths of rubble.
"In New York, who needs an

giant swaths of rubble.
"In New York, who needs an
atomic bomb?" the novelist

"In New York, who needs an
atomic bomb?" the novelist
Bernard Malamud wrote.

Atomic bomb?" the novelist
Bernard Malamud wrote.
"If you walked away from a

Bernard Malamud wrote.
"If you walked away from a
place, they tore it down."

"If you walked away from a
place, they tore it down."
Well, sometimes I

place, they tore it down."
Well, sometimes I
think the United States embarked

Well, sometimes I
think the United States embarked
on urban renewal out of some

think the United States embarked
on urban renewal out of some
kind of elaborate guilt trip

on urban renewal out of some
kind of elaborate guilt trip
over bombing so many places in

kind of elaborate guilt trip
over bombing so many places in
the course of the Second World

over bombing so many places in
the course of the Second World
War in Europe, because we saw

the course of the Second World
War in Europe, because we saw
that by clearing these sites,

War in Europe, because we saw
that by clearing these sites,
suddenly the bombs made it

that by clearing these sites,
suddenly the bombs made it
possible for new kinds of

suddenly the bombs made it
possible for new kinds of
developments and a way to

possible for new kinds of
developments and a way to
modernize cities.

Developments and a way to
modernize cities.
How to tackle the problem here?

Modernize cities.
How to tackle the problem here?
We really used the same

How to tackle the problem here?
We really used the same
techniques.

We really used the same
techniques.
We declared whole areas, after

techniques.
We declared whole areas, after
some kind of study of the

We declared whole areas, after
some kind of study of the
declining demographics,

some kind of study of the
declining demographics,
susceptible to demolition.

Declining demographics,
susceptible to demolition.
You just simply moved people

susceptible to demolition.
You just simply moved people
out.

You just simply moved people
out.
It became incredibly disruptive

out.
It became incredibly disruptive
to people's lives.

It became incredibly disruptive
to people's lives.
You scattered neighborhoods

to people's lives.
You scattered neighborhoods
which might have been very, very

You scattered neighborhoods
which might have been very, very
poor but still had a very dense

which might have been very, very
poor but still had a very dense
network of associations.

Poor but still had a very dense
network of associations.
And you began through urban

network of associations.
And you began through urban
renewal in a city like New

And you began through urban
renewal in a city like New
York... but it's true in Chicago

renewal in a city like New
York... but it's true in Chicago
and elsewhere... that process

York... but it's true in Chicago
and elsewhere... that process
which we are still reeling under

and elsewhere... that process
which we are still reeling under
of wrenching communities apart

which we are still reeling under
of wrenching communities apart
and then families collapsing.

Of wrenching communities apart
and then families collapsing.
The whole support system of the

and then families collapsing.
The whole support system of the
less well advantaged in our

The whole support system of the
less well advantaged in our
society collapses, and we wonder

less well advantaged in our
society collapses, and we wonder
why they then become

society collapses, and we wonder
why they then become
increasingly unable to function

why they then become
increasingly unable to function
in the society as a whole.

Increasingly unable to function
in the society as a whole.
And there were

in the society as a whole.
And there were
other problems as well with

And there were
other problems as well with
what was being created, as well

other problems as well with
what was being created, as well
as with what was being

what was being created, as well
as with what was being
destroyed.

As with what was being
destroyed.
Though for many New Yorkers the

destroyed.
Though for many New Yorkers the
new public-housing projects

Though for many New Yorkers the
new public-housing projects
rising from the rubble

new public-housing projects
rising from the rubble
represented the first decent

rising from the rubble
represented the first decent
housing they had known, the

represented the first decent
housing they had known, the
structures themselves, shaped

housing they had known, the
structures themselves, shaped
almost without exception to the

structures themselves, shaped
almost without exception to the
anti-urban theories of men like

almost without exception to the
anti-urban theories of men like
Le Corbusier, had little in

anti-urban theories of men like
Le Corbusier, had little in
common with the communities they

Le Corbusier, had little in
common with the communities they
had known... gaunt towers

common with the communities they
had known... gaunt towers
isolated from the street on

had known... gaunt towers
isolated from the street on
enormous tracts of land called

isolated from the street on
enormous tracts of land called
superblocks.

Enormous tracts of land called
superblocks.
Planners wanted to

superblocks.
Planners wanted to
reform the city by sweeping it

Planners wanted to
reform the city by sweeping it
clean.

Reform the city by sweeping it
clean.
They hated the grid and all the

clean.
They hated the grid and all the
way that the grid led to

They hated the grid and all the
way that the grid led to
development of the city.

Way that the grid led to
development of the city.
And they wanted to turn the city

development of the city.
And they wanted to turn the city
into a green park.

And they wanted to turn the city
into a green park.
Federal funds would come in to

into a green park.
Federal funds would come in to
buy these buildings, and you

Federal funds would come in to
buy these buildings, and you
would write the land down

buy these buildings, and you
would write the land down
virtually to nothing.

Would write the land down
virtually to nothing.
So you return the city to degree

virtually to nothing.
So you return the city to degree
zero.

So you return the city to degree
zero.
Under Moses you could get rid of

zero.
Under Moses you could get rid of
the gridiron, because you'd make

Under Moses you could get rid of
the gridiron, because you'd make
superblocks.

The gridiron, because you'd make
superblocks.
Moses had no interest in

superblocks.
Moses had no interest in
commercial life on his projects.

Moses had no interest in
commercial life on his projects.
He wanted them strictly pure of

commercial life on his projects.
He wanted them strictly pure of
commercial life, so he

He wanted them strictly pure of
commercial life, so he
eliminated streets.

Commercial life, so he
eliminated streets.
So it makes a bigger gulf

eliminated streets.
So it makes a bigger gulf
between the new development and

So it makes a bigger gulf
between the new development and
the existing city.

Between the new development and
the existing city.
That's a whole betrayal... in my

the existing city.
That's a whole betrayal... in my
view, a betrayal not only of New

That's a whole betrayal... in my
view, a betrayal not only of New
York's traditions and history

view, a betrayal not only of New
York's traditions and history
and natural structure, but also

York's traditions and history
and natural structure, but also
a betrayal of what makes a

and natural structure, but also
a betrayal of what makes a
community.

A betrayal of what makes a
community.
"The uptown slums are

community.
"The uptown slums are
being demolished, but the

"The uptown slums are
being demolished, but the
rectangular tenements that

being demolished, but the
rectangular tenements that
replace them have not a trace of

rectangular tenements that
replace them have not a trace of
invention.

Replace them have not a trace of
invention.
Their bleakness is absolute.

Invention.
Their bleakness is absolute.
No man has ever dreamed of a

Their bleakness is absolute.
No man has ever dreamed of a
city of such monotonous

No man has ever dreamed of a
city of such monotonous
severity.

City of such monotonous
severity.
And there must be some bond

severity.
And there must be some bond
between our houses and our

And there must be some bond
between our houses and our
dreams."

between our houses and our
dreams."
John Cheever.

Dreams."
John Cheever.
"Everybody, it would

John Cheever.
"Everybody, it would
seem, is for the rebuilding of

"Everybody, it would
seem, is for the rebuilding of
our cities, with a unity of

seem, is for the rebuilding of
our cities, with a unity of
approach that is remarkable.

Our cities, with a unity of
approach that is remarkable.
But that is not the same thing

approach that is remarkable.
But that is not the same thing
as liking cities.

But that is not the same thing
as liking cities.
Most of the rebuilding underway

as liking cities.
Most of the rebuilding underway
is being designed by people who

Most of the rebuilding underway
is being designed by people who
don't like cities.

Is being designed by people who
don't like cities.
They do not merely dislike the

don't like cities.
They do not merely dislike the
noise and the dirt and the

They do not merely dislike the
noise and the dirt and the
congestion.

Noise and the dirt and the
congestion.
They dislike the city's variety

congestion.
They dislike the city's variety
and concentration, its tension,

They dislike the city's variety
and concentration, its tension,
its hustle and bustle.

And concentration, its tension,
its hustle and bustle.
The results are not cities

its hustle and bustle.
The results are not cities
within cities, but anticities."

The results are not cities
within cities, but anticities."
William H. Whyte.

Within cities, but anticities."
William H. Whyte.
Title One was only

William H. Whyte.
Title One was only
part of the story; Title Two was

Title One was only
part of the story; Title Two was
the other part of it.

Part of the story; Title Two was
the other part of it.
The federal government is not

the other part of it.
The federal government is not
only intervening in this program

The federal government is not
only intervening in this program
that is demolishing vast areas

only intervening in this program
that is demolishing vast areas
of the inner city.

That is demolishing vast areas
of the inner city.
It is also, in fact,

of the inner city.
It is also, in fact,
underwriting the development of

It is also, in fact,
underwriting the development of
the suburbs by saying to banks

underwriting the development of
the suburbs by saying to banks
that, "We are going to institute

the suburbs by saying to banks
that, "We are going to institute
a program of mortgage

that, "We are going to institute
a program of mortgage
guarantees.

A program of mortgage
guarantees.
People who might look like

guarantees.
People who might look like
they're dangerous credit risks

People who might look like
they're dangerous credit risks
and you might not want to give

they're dangerous credit risks
and you might not want to give
them a mortgage because they're

and you might not want to give
them a mortgage because they're
not making enough money, we, the

them a mortgage because they're
not making enough money, we, the
federal government, say to you

not making enough money, we, the
federal government, say to you
that if you give these people

federal government, say to you
that if you give these people
mortgages, we will guarantee you

that if you give these people
mortgages, we will guarantee you
that in fact if they default,

mortgages, we will guarantee you
that in fact if they default,
we'll pay you."

that in fact if they default,
we'll pay you."
And because of that, money was

we'll pay you."
And because of that, money was
available to flow into the

And because of that, money was
available to flow into the
private-housing market.

Available to flow into the
private-housing market.
And unfortunately, it was not

private-housing market.
And unfortunately, it was not
allowed to flow into multifamily

And unfortunately, it was not
allowed to flow into multifamily
housing in the city.

Allowed to flow into multifamily
housing in the city.
What are you talking about?

Housing in the city.
What are you talking about?
You're talking about, in fact,

What are you talking about?
You're talking about, in fact,
the development of the suburbs.

You're talking about, in fact,
the development of the suburbs.
So between this mix of programs,

the development of the suburbs.
So between this mix of programs,
the federal government has opted

So between this mix of programs,
the federal government has opted
for a policy which is profoundly

the federal government has opted
for a policy which is profoundly
anticity.

For a policy which is profoundly
anticity.
Add to that the

anticity.
Add to that the
interstate highways, which were

Add to that the
interstate highways, which were
ready to whisk people out of the

interstate highways, which were
ready to whisk people out of the
city and take them to those new

ready to whisk people out of the
city and take them to those new
homes that were rising in the

city and take them to those new
homes that were rising in the
cornfields and the potato fields

homes that were rising in the
cornfields and the potato fields
in response to all this hot loan

cornfields and the potato fields
in response to all this hot loan
money being around.

In response to all this hot loan
money being around.
New York was suddenly surrounded

money being around.
New York was suddenly surrounded
by the changes in American life.

New York was suddenly surrounded
by the changes in American life.
But also got it right in the

by the changes in American life.
But also got it right in the
neck from various federal

But also got it right in the
neck from various federal
programs that were supposed to

neck from various federal
programs that were supposed to
help the city, that said that

programs that were supposed to
help the city, that said that
they were about to help the

help the city, that said that
they were about to help the
American people.

They were about to help the
American people.
And, boy, the destruction that

American people.
And, boy, the destruction that
came from this concentration of

And, boy, the destruction that
came from this concentration of
effects!

Came from this concentration of
effects!
Coincidental, it all started to

effects!
Coincidental, it all started to
happen in the late '40s.

Coincidental, it all started to
happen in the late '40s.
And probably any one of them New

happen in the late '40s.
And probably any one of them New
York could have fought off or

And probably any one of them New
York could have fought off or
somehow accommodated or made its

York could have fought off or
somehow accommodated or made its
peace with.

Somehow accommodated or made its
peace with.
But all of those things

peace with.
But all of those things
happening at once just was

But all of those things
happening at once just was
disastrous.

Happening at once just was
disastrous.
In the end, nothing

disastrous.
In the end, nothing
would transform the landscape of

In the end, nothing
would transform the landscape of
American cities more

would transform the landscape of
American cities more
dramatically than the billions

American cities more
dramatically than the billions
of dollars in federal aid

dramatically than the billions
of dollars in federal aid
streaming out of Washington to

of dollars in federal aid
streaming out of Washington to
build new arterial highways,

streaming out of Washington to
build new arterial highways,
culminating in the Interstate

build new arterial highways,
culminating in the Interstate
Highway Act of 1956.

Culminating in the Interstate
Highway Act of 1956.
The most important single

Highway Act of 1956.
The most important single
public-works project in America

The most important single
public-works project in America
since the Erie Canal, the

public-works project in America
since the Erie Canal, the
41,000-mile system would reverse

since the Erie Canal, the
41,000-mile system would reverse
the impact of DeWitt Clinton's

41,000-mile system would reverse
the impact of DeWitt Clinton's
great achievement, drawing

the impact of DeWitt Clinton's
great achievement, drawing
resources out of cities and

great achievement, drawing
resources out of cities and
diffusing them out across the

resources out of cities and
diffusing them out across the
American landscape, while

diffusing them out across the
American landscape, while
committing the economy of the

American landscape, while
committing the economy of the
entire nation to a self-

committing the economy of the
entire nation to a self-
perpetuating culture of the

entire nation to a self-
perpetuating culture of the
automobile.

Perpetuating culture of the
automobile.
But the car has a

automobile.
But the car has a
life of its own.

But the car has a
life of its own.
And you've got to have more

life of its own.
And you've got to have more
highways so you can sell more

And you've got to have more
highways so you can sell more
cars.

Highways so you can sell more
cars.
And if you make more cars,

cars.
And if you make more cars,
you've got to have more

And if you make more cars,
you've got to have more
highways.

You've got to have more
highways.
And once you're on that

highways.
And once you're on that
treadmill, then anything that

And once you're on that
treadmill, then anything that
stands in the way, including

treadmill, then anything that
stands in the way, including
that vision of the city as a

stands in the way, including
that vision of the city as a
civilized but dense arena, goes

that vision of the city as a
civilized but dense arena, goes
by the wayside.

Civilized but dense arena, goes
by the wayside.
And so we've got this period

by the wayside.
And so we've got this period
when, on the one hand, we're

And so we've got this period
when, on the one hand, we're
projecting roads out into the

when, on the one hand, we're
projecting roads out into the
suburbs and people are in fact

projecting roads out into the
suburbs and people are in fact
motoring off on them; on the

suburbs and people are in fact
motoring off on them; on the
other hand, we're ramming roads

motoring off on them; on the
other hand, we're ramming roads
through working-class and poor

other hand, we're ramming roads
through working-class and poor
quarters.

Through working-class and poor
quarters.
One way or another,

quarters.
One way or another,
Robert Moses had a hand in it

One way or another,
Robert Moses had a hand in it
all, overseeing the construction

Robert Moses had a hand in it
all, overseeing the construction
of nearly a billion and a half

all, overseeing the construction
of nearly a billion and a half
dollars in federally-funded

of nearly a billion and a half
dollars in federally-funded
highways in little more than 15

dollars in federally-funded
highways in little more than 15
years.

Highways in little more than 15
years.
We wouldn't have any

years.
We wouldn't have any
American economy without the

We wouldn't have any
American economy without the
automobile business.

American economy without the
automobile business.
That's literally true.

Automobile business.
That's literally true.
To believe that this is a great

That's literally true.
To believe that this is a great
industry that has to go on and

To believe that this is a great
industry that has to go on and
has to keep on turning out cars

industry that has to go on and
has to keep on turning out cars
and trucks and buses, then there

has to keep on turning out cars
and trucks and buses, then there
have to be places for them to

and trucks and buses, then there
have to be places for them to
run.

Have to be places for them to
run.
There have to be modern roads,

run.
There have to be modern roads,
modern arteries.

There have to be modern roads,
modern arteries.
Somebody's got to build them.

Modern arteries.
Somebody's got to build them.
And in order to get those things

Somebody's got to build them.
And in order to get those things
done and done properly, people

And in order to get those things
done and done properly, people
must be inconvenienced who are

done and done properly, people
must be inconvenienced who are
in the way.

Must be inconvenienced who are
in the way.
After the war, everyone

in the way.
After the war, everyone
was beginning to realize that

After the war, everyone
was beginning to realize that
you had to build great arterial

was beginning to realize that
you had to build great arterial
routes through the cities.

You had to build great arterial
routes through the cities.
Every city had plans for

routes through the cities.
Every city had plans for
expressways, but nobody was able

Every city had plans for
expressways, but nobody was able
to build the expressways.

Expressways, but nobody was able
to build the expressways.
There were two reasons: one, the

to build the expressways.
There were two reasons: one, the
staggering costs of these

There were two reasons: one, the
staggering costs of these
expressways compared to

staggering costs of these
expressways compared to
everything that had gone before

expressways compared to
everything that had gone before
in public works to build it

everything that had gone before
in public works to build it
through a crowded urban setting.

In public works to build it
through a crowded urban setting.
The second thing is this is a

through a crowded urban setting.
The second thing is this is a
democracy.

The second thing is this is a
democracy.
You had to evict from their

democracy.
You had to evict from their
homes tens of thousands of

You had to evict from their
homes tens of thousands of
people for an ordinary

homes tens of thousands of
people for an ordinary
expressway.

People for an ordinary
expressway.
They were voters.

Expressway.
They were voters.
And politicians shied away from

They were voters.
And politicians shied away from
the very thought of evictions on

And politicians shied away from
the very thought of evictions on
a scale like that.

The very thought of evictions on
a scale like that.
Moses shied away from nothing.

A scale like that.
Moses shied away from nothing.
And in the first... as soon as

Moses shied away from nothing.
And in the first... as soon as
the war ended, he began to ram

And in the first... as soon as
the war ended, he began to ram
six great expressways right

the war ended, he began to ram
six great expressways right
across the heart of New York.

Six great expressways right
across the heart of New York.
Of all the federal

across the heart of New York.
Of all the federal
projects under Robert Moses's

Of all the federal
projects under Robert Moses's
control, none would have more

projects under Robert Moses's
control, none would have more
devastating consequences for the

control, none would have more
devastating consequences for the
city and its people or instill

devastating consequences for the
city and its people or instill
more rage against its executor

city and its people or instill
more rage against its executor
than the Cross Bronx Expressway,

more rage against its executor
than the Cross Bronx Expressway,
a 225-foot-wide concrete trench,

than the Cross Bronx Expressway,
a 225-foot-wide concrete trench,
seven miles long, that would

a 225-foot-wide concrete trench,
seven miles long, that would
carve a path of destruction New

seven miles long, that would
carve a path of destruction New
Yorkers would never forget.

Carve a path of destruction New
Yorkers would never forget.
This used to be a

Yorkers would never forget.
This used to be a
neighborhood.

This used to be a
neighborhood.
The neighborhood was called East

neighborhood.
The neighborhood was called East
Tremont in the Bronx in New

The neighborhood was called East
Tremont in the Bronx in New
York.

Tremont in the Bronx in New
York.
The heart of it was where this

York.
The heart of it was where this
road runs behind me, the Cross

The heart of it was where this
road runs behind me, the Cross
Bronx Expressway.

Road runs behind me, the Cross
Bronx Expressway.
It was predominantly Jewish.

Bronx Expressway.
It was predominantly Jewish.
There was also Irish and Germans

It was predominantly Jewish.
There was also Irish and Germans
in it and some blacks.

There was also Irish and Germans
in it and some blacks.
It was a neighborhood where

in it and some blacks.
It was a neighborhood where
everybody knew everybody else.

It was a neighborhood where
everybody knew everybody else.
It was a community.

Everybody knew everybody else.
It was a community.
It was a place with a heart.

It was a community.
It was a place with a heart.
Robert Moses tore this heart

It was a place with a heart.
Robert Moses tore this heart
out.

Robert Moses tore this heart
out.
The Cross Bronx

out.
The Cross Bronx
Expressway goes through about 12

The Cross Bronx
Expressway goes through about 12
or 15 different neighborhoods

Expressway goes through about 12
or 15 different neighborhoods
and it just, like, went through

or 15 different neighborhoods
and it just, like, went through
the center of a great many.

And it just, like, went through
the center of a great many.
And, I mean, the idea was that

the center of a great many.
And, I mean, the idea was that
it was built on a straight line.

And, I mean, the idea was that
it was built on a straight line.
And there was no account of, you

it was built on a straight line.
And there was no account of, you
know, who the people are and

And there was no account of, you
know, who the people are and
what they're doing.

Know, who the people are and
what they're doing.
There was no question of, "Can

what they're doing.
There was no question of, "Can
we work this highway into

There was no question of, "Can
we work this highway into
existing life?"

we work this highway into
existing life?"
This question never came up in

existing life?"
This question never came up in
the 1940s or '50s.

This question never came up in
the 1940s or '50s.
They had the power to build in

the 1940s or '50s.
They had the power to build in
straight lines, and they just

They had the power to build in
straight lines, and they just
did.

Straight lines, and they just
did.
These were still

did.
These were still
intact communities.

These were still
intact communities.
People worked.

Intact communities.
People worked.
People kept up their properties.

People worked.
People kept up their properties.
People did business where they

People kept up their properties.
People did business where they
lived.

People did business where they
lived.
This was a place where you did

lived.
This was a place where you did
your marketing locally.

This was a place where you did
your marketing locally.
You did your business locally.

Your marketing locally.
You did your business locally.
You got your first Holy

You did your business locally.
You got your first Holy
Communion, read your haftarah

You got your first Holy
Communion, read your haftarah
for your bar mitzvah.

Communion, read your haftarah
for your bar mitzvah.
It all happened right there.

For your bar mitzvah.
It all happened right there.
It was a culturally and

It all happened right there.
It was a culturally and
materially self-sufficient world

It was a culturally and
materially self-sufficient world
in a lot of ways.

Materially self-sufficient world
in a lot of ways.
On December 4, 1952,

in a lot of ways.
On December 4, 1952,
this community was told that

On December 4, 1952,
this community was told that
Robert Moses was going to take

this community was told that
Robert Moses was going to take
their homes away.

Robert Moses was going to take
their homes away.
They all got the same letter.

Their homes away.
They all got the same letter.
It was a very typical Robert

They all got the same letter.
It was a very typical Robert
Moses letter: "Your homes are in

It was a very typical Robert
Moses letter: "Your homes are in
the path of the already approved

Moses letter: "Your homes are in
the path of the already approved
Cross Bronx Expressway, and you

the path of the already approved
Cross Bronx Expressway, and you
have 90 days to get out."

Cross Bronx Expressway, and you
have 90 days to get out."
Now, this was 1952.

Have 90 days to get out."
Now, this was 1952.
It was not the era of protests.

Now, this was 1952.
It was not the era of protests.
And what this community tried to

It was not the era of protests.
And what this community tried to
do was then very new.

And what this community tried to
do was then very new.
And they thought for a while

do was then very new.
And they thought for a while
that they were going to win.

And they thought for a while
that they were going to win.
Their assemblyman said they

that they were going to win.
Their assemblyman said they
would never approve it.

Their assemblyman said they
would never approve it.
Their state senator said it will

would never approve it.
Their state senator said it will
never be approved.

Their state senator said it will
never be approved.
And Robert F. Wagner, Jr., who

never be approved.
And Robert F. Wagner, Jr., who
was running for mayor then,

And Robert F. Wagner, Jr., who
was running for mayor then,
solemnly promised in his

was running for mayor then,
solemnly promised in his
election campaign that he would

solemnly promised in his
election campaign that he would
never approve this route for the

election campaign that he would
never approve this route for the
Cross Bronx Expressway.

Never approve this route for the
Cross Bronx Expressway.
But of course, by this era, it

Cross Bronx Expressway.
But of course, by this era, it
was the mayor's word that

But of course, by this era, it
was the mayor's word that
mattered or a borough

was the mayor's word that
mattered or a borough
president's word that mattered

mattered or a borough
president's word that mattered
or an assemblyman's or a

president's word that mattered
or an assemblyman's or a
senator's.

Or an assemblyman's or a
senator's.
The only word that mattered as

senator's.
The only word that mattered as
to where a highway was going to

The only word that mattered as
to where a highway was going to
go in New York was Robert

to where a highway was going to
go in New York was Robert
Moses's.

Go in New York was Robert
Moses's.
They seem to think

Moses's.
They seem to think
that they have a choice, that

They seem to think
that they have a choice, that
they'd rather stay in the houses

that they have a choice, that
they'd rather stay in the houses
that they've lived in all this

they'd rather stay in the houses
that they've lived in all this
time.

That they've lived in all this
time.
If the whole federal

time.
If the whole federal
arterial-aid program running in

If the whole federal
arterial-aid program running in
the billions of dollars depend

arterial-aid program running in
the billions of dollars depend
upon the votes of a very few

the billions of dollars depend
upon the votes of a very few
people in one section, we

upon the votes of a very few
people in one section, we
wouldn't build anything...

People in one section, we
wouldn't build anything...
nothing would be built.

Wouldn't build anything...
nothing would be built.
There'd be no highways.

Nothing would be built.
There'd be no highways.
There'd be no housing.

There'd be no highways.
There'd be no housing.
There'd be no public

There'd be no housing.
There'd be no public
improvements.

There'd be no public
improvements.
The individual has to yield in

improvements.
The individual has to yield in
matters of this kind to the

The individual has to yield in
matters of this kind to the
entire country for the

matters of this kind to the
entire country for the
advantages, needs of the

entire country for the
advantages, needs of the
majority of people.

Advantages, needs of the
majority of people.
And there's just no

majority of people.
And there's just no
other way ou

And there's just no
other way ou
No, there's no other

other way ou
No, there's no other
way out.

No, there's no other
way out.
In the end, the

way out.
In the end, the
opposition never had a chance.

In the end, the
opposition never had a chance.
On April 23, 1953, at a hearing

opposition never had a chance.
On April 23, 1953, at a hearing
of the Board of Estimate at City

On April 23, 1953, at a hearing
of the Board of Estimate at City
Hall, the Bronx borough

of the Board of Estimate at City
Hall, the Bronx borough
president underwent a mysterious

Hall, the Bronx borough
president underwent a mysterious
change of heart after a few

president underwent a mysterious
change of heart after a few
whispered words with Robert

change of heart after a few
whispered words with Robert
Moses.

Whispered words with Robert
Moses.
Not long after, the new mayor,

Moses.
Not long after, the new mayor,
Robert F. Wagner, Jr., abruptly

Not long after, the new mayor,
Robert F. Wagner, Jr., abruptly
switched his position, too.

Robert F. Wagner, Jr., abruptly
switched his position, too.
And in the summer of 1955, as

switched his position, too.
And in the summer of 1955, as
stunned residents of East

And in the summer of 1955, as
stunned residents of East
Tremont looked on, work began on

stunned residents of East
Tremont looked on, work began on
one of the most awesome public-

Tremont looked on, work began on
one of the most awesome public-
works projects in the city's

one of the most awesome public-
works projects in the city's
entire history.

Works projects in the city's
entire history.
This is what it's like

entire history.
This is what it's like
to build a great highway through

This is what it's like
to build a great highway through
the greatest city in the world.

To build a great highway through
the greatest city in the world.
When the guy who built the Burma

the greatest city in the world.
When the guy who built the Burma
Road, General Thomas F. Farrell,

When the guy who built the Burma
Road, General Thomas F. Farrell,
came here with his chief aide,

Road, General Thomas F. Farrell,
came here with his chief aide,
Chapin, they looked at this and

came here with his chief aide,
Chapin, they looked at this and
they said, "We thought the Burma

Chapin, they looked at this and
they said, "We thought the Burma
Road was tough.

They said, "We thought the Burma
Road was tough.
It was nothing compared to

Road was tough.
It was nothing compared to
this."

It was nothing compared to
this."
When they came here, this valley

this."
When they came here, this valley
that you see here was, of

When they came here, this valley
that you see here was, of
course, filled with apartment

that you see here was, of
course, filled with apartment
houses.

Course, filled with apartment
houses.
So they had to demolish scores

houses.
So they had to demolish scores
of six- and seven-story

So they had to demolish scores
of six- and seven-story
apartment houses.

Of six- and seven-story
apartment houses.
But that was really nothing

apartment houses.
But that was really nothing
compared to the problems.

But that was really nothing
compared to the problems.
They were going to have to blast

compared to the problems.
They were going to have to blast
through the ridge there.

They were going to have to blast
through the ridge there.
They knew that building this

through the ridge there.
They knew that building this
road was going to take ten or 12

They knew that building this
road was going to take ten or 12
years.

Road was going to take ten or 12
years.
In fact, it took 12 years.

Years.
In fact, it took 12 years.
They knew they couldn't

In fact, it took 12 years.
They knew they couldn't
interrupt the subway service, so

They knew they couldn't
interrupt the subway service, so
they were going to have to keep

interrupt the subway service, so
they were going to have to keep
that subway line running while

they were going to have to keep
that subway line running while
they blasted through that ridge.

That subway line running while
they blasted through that ridge.
Also, inside that ridge is one

they blasted through that ridge.
Also, inside that ridge is one
of the world's largest storm

Also, inside that ridge is one
of the world's largest storm
sewer mains, gas mains,

of the world's largest storm
sewer mains, gas mains,
electric lines, telegraph

sewer mains, gas mains,
electric lines, telegraph
cables, sewers of all types, a

electric lines, telegraph
cables, sewers of all types, a
whole mass of utility lines.

Cables, sewers of all types, a
whole mass of utility lines.
Moses was going to have to ram

whole mass of utility lines.
Moses was going to have to ram
this road through there while

Moses was going to have to ram
this road through there while
keeping all those things in

this road through there while
keeping all those things in
operation.

Keeping all those things in
operation.
I remember standing

operation.
I remember standing
on the ramparts of the concourse

I remember standing
on the ramparts of the concourse
and watching the engineering

on the ramparts of the concourse
and watching the engineering
job, which was quite magnificent

and watching the engineering
job, which was quite magnificent
and sublime because you could

job, which was quite magnificent
and sublime because you could
see the destruction in one

and sublime because you could
see the destruction in one
direction.

See the destruction in one
direction.
Everything was being smashed to

direction.
Everything was being smashed to
the east.

Everything was being smashed to
the east.
And to the west nothing had been

the east.
And to the west nothing had been
done yet, so it looked like a

And to the west nothing had been
done yet, so it looked like a
completely intact city.

Done yet, so it looked like a
completely intact city.
And yet you knew it was like the

completely intact city.
And yet you knew it was like the
artillery shells were going to

And yet you knew it was like the
artillery shells were going to
come down on it, you know, in a

artillery shells were going to
come down on it, you know, in a
year, in two years, in a month.

Come down on it, you know, in a
year, in two years, in a month.
They didn't tell us.

Year, in two years, in a month.
They didn't tell us.
And all I could think

They didn't tell us.
And all I could think
of was that this didn't have to

And all I could think
of was that this didn't have to
be.

Of was that this didn't have to
be.
Now, that very afternoon as it

be.
Now, that very afternoon as it
happened, I had an interview

Now, that very afternoon as it
happened, I had an interview
with Robert Moses.

Happened, I had an interview
with Robert Moses.
And I was asking him about this

with Robert Moses.
And I was asking him about this
expressway, and I was trying to

And I was asking him about this
expressway, and I was trying to
find a polite way to address the

expressway, and I was trying to
find a polite way to address the
subject.

Find a polite way to address the
subject.
And I said, "Was it perhaps more

subject.
And I said, "Was it perhaps more
difficult to build an expressway

And I said, "Was it perhaps more
difficult to build an expressway
through a crowded city than to

difficult to build an expressway
through a crowded city than to
build a parkway on empty Long

through a crowded city than to
build a parkway on empty Long
Island?"

build a parkway on empty Long
Island?"
He said, "Oh, no.

Island?"
He said, "Oh, no.
No, not at all, not really."

He said, "Oh, no.
No, not at all, not really."
I said, "Well, what about the

No, not at all, not really."
I said, "Well, what about the
Cross Bronx Expressway?"

I said, "Well, what about the
Cross Bronx Expressway?"
He said, "Oh, no.

Cross Bronx Expressway?"
He said, "Oh, no.
There was no real trouble up

He said, "Oh, no.
There was no real trouble up
there."

There was no real trouble up
there."
I said, "Well, was there

there."
I said, "Well, was there
hardship for the people?"

I said, "Well, was there
hardship for the people?"
He said, "No, no."

hardship for the people?"
He said, "No, no."
He said, "They just stirred up

He said, "No, no."
He said, "They just stirred up
the animals there.

He said, "They just stirred up
the animals there.
So I just held fast, and that

the animals there.
So I just held fast, and that
was all we had to do."

So I just held fast, and that
was all we had to do."
And of course it was all he had

was all we had to do."
And of course it was all he had
to do, because that was the

And of course it was all he had
to do, because that was the
reality of political power in

to do, because that was the
reality of political power in
New York at that time.

Reality of political power in
New York at that time.
Year after year,

New York at that time.
Year after year,
the rampage of destruction went

Year after year,
the rampage of destruction went
on as Robert Moses rammed one

the rampage of destruction went
on as Robert Moses rammed one
expressway after another across

on as Robert Moses rammed one
expressway after another across
communities in Brooklyn, Queens,

expressway after another across
communities in Brooklyn, Queens,
Staten Island, and the Bronx...

Communities in Brooklyn, Queens,
Staten Island, and the Bronx...
13 massive roads in all and more

Staten Island, and the Bronx...
13 massive roads in all and more
than 130 miles of concrete,

13 massive roads in all and more
than 130 miles of concrete,
shattering no fewer than 21

than 130 miles of concrete,
shattering no fewer than 21
separate neighborhoods and

shattering no fewer than 21
separate neighborhoods and
upending the lives of more than

separate neighborhoods and
upending the lives of more than
a quarter of a million people.

Upending the lives of more than
a quarter of a million people.
The impact of that onslaught on

a quarter of a million people.
The impact of that onslaught on
the fragile ecology of New

The impact of that onslaught on
the fragile ecology of New
York's working-class

the fragile ecology of New
York's working-class
neighborhoods would continue to

York's working-class
neighborhoods would continue to
reverberate for generations.

Neighborhoods would continue to
reverberate for generations.
The car is not a

reverberate for generations.
The car is not a
neutral actor on the urban

The car is not a
neutral actor on the urban
landscape.

Neutral actor on the urban
landscape.
The car brings mobility and it

landscape.
The car brings mobility and it
brings problems.

The car brings mobility and it
brings problems.
Moses only saw the mobility; he

brings problems.
Moses only saw the mobility; he
never saw the problems.

Moses only saw the mobility; he
never saw the problems.
If you owned a store in the area

never saw the problems.
If you owned a store in the area
of the Cross Bronx Expressway,

If you owned a store in the area
of the Cross Bronx Expressway,
suddenly a third of your

of the Cross Bronx Expressway,
suddenly a third of your
customers were gone, and half of

suddenly a third of your
customers were gone, and half of
those that remained were now on

customers were gone, and half of
those that remained were now on
the other side of the highway.

Those that remained were now on
the other side of the highway.
It knocked down all kinds of

the other side of the highway.
It knocked down all kinds of
places that were the glue of

It knocked down all kinds of
places that were the glue of
neighborhood life, leaving a

places that were the glue of
neighborhood life, leaving a
world in tatters; leaving pieces

neighborhood life, leaving a
world in tatters; leaving pieces
of neighborhoods that were no

world in tatters; leaving pieces
of neighborhoods that were no
longer viable, that could no

of neighborhoods that were no
longer viable, that could no
longer attract the new residents

longer viable, that could no
longer attract the new residents
that helped keep rents up, that

longer attract the new residents
that helped keep rents up, that
helped keep property values up,

that helped keep rents up, that
helped keep property values up,
that made the whole proposition

helped keep property values up,
that made the whole proposition
of living in a place or owning

that made the whole proposition
of living in a place or owning
property in a place a long-term

of living in a place or owning
property in a place a long-term
proposition that you could

property in a place a long-term
proposition that you could
sustain.

Proposition that you could
sustain.
So the Grand Concourse, you

sustain.
So the Grand Concourse, you
know, just hits rock bottom in

So the Grand Concourse, you
know, just hits rock bottom in
these decades.

Know, just hits rock bottom in
these decades.
Places like Mott Haven hit rock

these decades.
Places like Mott Haven hit rock
bottom to become part of the

Places like Mott Haven hit rock
bottom to become part of the
poorest congressional district

bottom to become part of the
poorest congressional district
in the entire country because of

poorest congressional district
in the entire country because of
the many, many sorrows that the

in the entire country because of
the many, many sorrows that the
Bronx has been inflicted with.

The many, many sorrows that the
Bronx has been inflicted with.
I stood on the

Bronx has been inflicted with.
I stood on the
ramparts of the concourse and

I stood on the
ramparts of the concourse and
said, "Someday I'll get that

ramparts of the concourse and
said, "Someday I'll get that
bastard."

said, "Someday I'll get that
bastard."
And there were a lot of other

bastard."
And there were a lot of other
people, too, who were standing

And there were a lot of other
people, too, who were standing
there with me and watching the

people, too, who were standing
there with me and watching the
job and said, "We hate that

there with me and watching the
job and said, "We hate that
creep.

Job and said, "We hate that
creep.
Someday we'll get him."

creep.
Someday we'll get him."
I mean, he'd made a lot of

Someday we'll get him."
I mean, he'd made a lot of
enemies over the years.

I mean, he'd made a lot of
enemies over the years.
You know, people who were

enemies over the years.
You know, people who were
willing to do anything to get

You know, people who were
willing to do anything to get
him.

Willing to do anything to get
him.
We don't pay to much

him.
We don't pay to much
attention to the critics.

We don't pay to much
attention to the critics.
They never build anything.

Attention to the critics.
They never build anything.
No critic ever built anything in

They never build anything.
No critic ever built anything in
my knowledge.

No critic ever built anything in
my knowledge.
And they don't bother us.

My knowledge.
And they don't bother us.
New York has too many critics.

And they don't bother us.
New York has too many critics.
We ought to get rid of some of

New York has too many critics.
We ought to get rid of some of
them.

We ought to get rid of some of
them.
And so the frenzy

them.
And so the frenzy
of building went on, as the

And so the frenzy
of building went on, as the
expressways drove through and

of building went on, as the
expressways drove through and
the tall towers rose and whole

expressways drove through and
the tall towers rose and whole
districts were demolished to

the tall towers rose and whole
districts were demolished to
make room for high-rise housing

districts were demolished to
make room for high-rise housing
projects and building after

make room for high-rise housing
projects and building after
building of glass and steel.

Projects and building after
building of glass and steel.
By the

building of glass and steel.
By the
'60s, we knew that urban renewal

By the
'60s, we knew that urban renewal
was a failure; we knew that it

'60s, we knew that urban renewal
was a failure; we knew that it
had taken the heart and the gut

was a failure; we knew that it
had taken the heart and the gut
out of cities.

But New York's urban renewal had
started in the '50s and was

started in the '50s and was
moving along like an unstoppable

moving along like an unstoppable
juggernaut.
And there were, of course, deals

And there were, of course, deals
made between the government and
between the real-estate people,

made between the government and
between the real-estate people,
the developers.

Between the real-estate people,
the developers.
It was nothing that those of us

the developers.
It was nothing that those of us
who cared about could stop.

It was nothing that those of us
who cared about could stop.
It was a done deal.

Who cared about could stop.
It was a done deal.
In 1956, a 30-year-

It was a done deal.
In 1956, a 30-year-
old poet named Allen Ginsberg,

In 1956, a 30-year-
old poet named Allen Ginsberg,
living on East Seventh Street in

old poet named Allen Ginsberg,
living on East Seventh Street in
the Village, sought to capture

living on East Seventh Street in
the Village, sought to capture
the increasingly impersonal and

the Village, sought to capture
the increasingly impersonal and
alien landscape of the city,

the increasingly impersonal and
alien landscape of the city,
which he depicted as the

alien landscape of the city,
which he depicted as the
insatiable Old Testament god,

which he depicted as the
insatiable Old Testament god,
Moloch, to whom children were

insatiable Old Testament god,
Moloch, to whom children were
ritually sacrificed.

Moloch, to whom children were
ritually sacrificed.
"What sphinx of

ritually sacrificed.
"What sphinx of
cement and aluminum hacked open

"What sphinx of
cement and aluminum hacked open
their skulls and ate up their

cement and aluminum hacked open
their skulls and ate up their
brains and imagination?

Their skulls and ate up their
brains and imagination?
Moloch, the incomprehensible

brains and imagination?
Moloch, the incomprehensible
prisons!

Moloch, the incomprehensible
prisons!
Moloch, the crossbone soulless

prisons!
Moloch, the crossbone soulless
jailhouse and congress of

Moloch, the crossbone soulless
jailhouse and congress of
sorrows!

Jailhouse and congress of
sorrows!
Moloch, whose buildings are

sorrows!
Moloch, whose buildings are
judgment!

Moloch, whose buildings are
judgment!
Moloch, whose eyes are a

judgment!
Moloch, whose eyes are a
thousand blind windows!

Moloch, whose eyes are a
thousand blind windows!
Moloch, whose skyscrapers stand

thousand blind windows!
Moloch, whose skyscrapers stand
in the long streets like endless

Moloch, whose skyscrapers stand
in the long streets like endless
Jehovahs!

In the long streets like endless
Jehovahs!
Moloch! Moloch!

Jehovahs!
Moloch! Moloch!
Robot apartments!

Moloch! Moloch!
Robot apartments!
Invisible suburbs!

Robot apartments!
Invisible suburbs!
Skeleton treasuries!

Invisible suburbs!
Skeleton treasuries!
Demonic industries!

Skeleton treasuries!
Demonic industries!
Spectral nations!

Demonic industries!
Spectral nations!
Invincible madhouses!

Spectral nations!
Invincible madhouses!
They broke their backs lifting

Invincible madhouses!
They broke their backs lifting
Moloch to Heaven!

They broke their backs lifting
Moloch to Heaven!
Pavements, trees, radios, tons!

Moloch to Heaven!
Pavements, trees, radios, tons!
Wake up in Moloch!

Pavements, trees, radios, tons!
Wake up in Moloch!
Light streaming out of the sky!"

Wake up in Moloch!
Light streaming out of the sky!"
Allen Ginsberg, 1956.

As the buildings rise, as the

buildings rise, as the
skyscrapers get bigger, as the

skyscrapers get bigger, as the
mechanism of the city becomes

mechanism of the city becomes
more and more dehumanized, as

more and more dehumanized, as
the human being is dwarfed,

the human being is dwarfed,
there's finally gigantic,

there's finally gigantic,
thousand-windowed Molochs are

thousand-windowed Molochs are
created that look down on the

created that look down on the
individual and dwarf the

individual and dwarf the
individual and intimidate the

individual and intimidate the
individual.

Individual.
And then you find the individual

And then you find the individual
at the mercy of the people up in

at the mercy of the people up in
the big towers that the person

the big towers that the person
has no control over.
The guy living on East 12th

The guy living on East 12th
street has no idea what's going
on.

Street has no idea what's going
on.
And still the

on.
And still the
building went on.

And still the
building went on.
At the southern tip of the

building went on.
At the southern tip of the
island, hundreds of historic

At the southern tip of the
island, hundreds of historic
buildings would soon be razed to

island, hundreds of historic
buildings would soon be razed to
the ground to make room for two

buildings would soon be razed to
the ground to make room for two
immense, rectangular towers that

the ground to make room for two
immense, rectangular towers that
would eventually soar higher

immense, rectangular towers that
would eventually soar higher
than the Empire State Building

would eventually soar higher
than the Empire State Building
itself.

Than the Empire State Building
itself.
Far out across the harbor,

itself.
Far out across the harbor,
meanwhile, Robert Moses had

Far out across the harbor,
meanwhile, Robert Moses had
commenced work on yet another

meanwhile, Robert Moses had
commenced work on yet another
epic project... a mighty bridge,

commenced work on yet another
epic project... a mighty bridge,
the longest in the world, that

epic project... a mighty bridge,
the longest in the world, that
would eventually span the great

the longest in the world, that
would eventually span the great
narrows through which Verrazano

would eventually span the great
narrows through which Verrazano
and Henry Hudson himself had

narrows through which Verrazano
and Henry Hudson himself had
first sailed so many centuries

and Henry Hudson himself had
first sailed so many centuries
before.

First sailed so many centuries
before.
By then, most of the more than

before.
By then, most of the more than
600 miles of highway Robert

By then, most of the more than
600 miles of highway Robert
Moses would construct in and

600 miles of highway Robert
Moses would construct in and
around New York were either

Moses would construct in and
around New York were either
complete or well underway, and

around New York were either
complete or well underway, and
Moses himself was reaching the

complete or well underway, and
Moses himself was reaching the
very apogee of his power.

Moses himself was reaching the
very apogee of his power.
Well, he held 12 public

very apogee of his power.
Well, he held 12 public
jobs at once, which meant he had

Well, he held 12 public
jobs at once, which meant he had
the overseeing power for every

jobs at once, which meant he had
the overseeing power for every
piece of public construction in

the overseeing power for every
piece of public construction in
New York, not just the highways,

piece of public construction in
New York, not just the highways,
the public-housing projects, and

New York, not just the highways,
the public-housing projects, and
the parks he built, but

the public-housing projects, and
the parks he built, but
everything... sewers, catch

the parks he built, but
everything... sewers, catch
basins.

Everything... sewers, catch
basins.
No one could move without Robert

basins.
No one could move without Robert
Moses's approval.

No one could move without Robert
Moses's approval.
Robert Moses, who built 627

Moses's approval.
Robert Moses, who built 627
miles of highway, never drove a

Robert Moses, who built 627
miles of highway, never drove a
car in his life except for a

miles of highway, never drove a
car in his life except for a
couple of driving lessons,

car in his life except for a
couple of driving lessons,
unsuccessful ones, that he took

couple of driving lessons,
unsuccessful ones, that he took
in 1922.

Unsuccessful ones, that he took
in 1922.
His car... he had this huge

in 1922.
His car... he had this huge
limousine, of course, with the

His car... he had this huge
limousine, of course, with the
license plate "2000"... and his

limousine, of course, with the
license plate "2000"... and his
car, when you were in it with

license plate "2000"... and his
car, when you were in it with
him, you felt like you were

car, when you were in it with
him, you felt like you were
insulated from the world.

Him, you felt like you were
insulated from the world.
The seats were so far back, you

insulated from the world.
The seats were so far back, you
couldn't see out the windows,

The seats were so far back, you
couldn't see out the windows,
and they were covered in leather

couldn't see out the windows,
and they were covered in leather
so fine that you really felt

and they were covered in leather
so fine that you really felt
that you were in the library of

so fine that you really felt
that you were in the library of
a fine men's club when you were

that you were in the library of
a fine men's club when you were
in his car.

A fine men's club when you were
in his car.
So he had no idea in many ways

in his car.
So he had no idea in many ways
of what he had wrought.

So he had no idea in many ways
of what he had wrought.
But all the new

of what he had wrought.
But all the new
building, so much of it

But all the new
building, so much of it
authorized, controlled, or

building, so much of it
authorized, controlled, or
overseen by Moses himself, could

authorized, controlled, or
overseen by Moses himself, could
not disguise the fact that by

overseen by Moses himself, could
not disguise the fact that by
1960 New York was a city that

not disguise the fact that by
1960 New York was a city that
seemed to be spiraling into ever

1960 New York was a city that
seemed to be spiraling into ever
deeper trouble.

Seemed to be spiraling into ever
deeper trouble.
You're beginning to

deeper trouble.
You're beginning to
get people noticing that these

You're beginning to
get people noticing that these
highways and the new civic

get people noticing that these
highways and the new civic
centers and projects are, in

highways and the new civic
centers and projects are, in
fact, destroying vast amounts of

centers and projects are, in
fact, destroying vast amounts of
space that had been devoted to

fact, destroying vast amounts of
space that had been devoted to
manufacturing.

Space that had been devoted to
manufacturing.
All those huge projects along

manufacturing.
All those huge projects along
the East River are replacing, in

All those huge projects along
the East River are replacing, in
fact, acres and acres of small

the East River are replacing, in
fact, acres and acres of small
workshops and manufacturers.

Fact, acres and acres of small
workshops and manufacturers.
The big civic center that goes

workshops and manufacturers.
The big civic center that goes
up in downtown Brooklyn, you

The big civic center that goes
up in downtown Brooklyn, you
know, wipes out vast amounts of

up in downtown Brooklyn, you
know, wipes out vast amounts of
thriving business.

Know, wipes out vast amounts of
thriving business.
We're not talking about

thriving business.
We're not talking about
eradicating slums anymore.

We're not talking about
eradicating slums anymore.
I mean, they're using the word.

Eradicating slums anymore.
I mean, they're using the word.
They're saying, "Oops, you're

I mean, they're using the word.
They're saying, "Oops, you're
blighted; you go," you know?

They're saying, "Oops, you're
blighted; you go," you know?
"Oops, you're a slum; you go."

blighted; you go," you know?
"Oops, you're a slum; you go."
But in fact, these are real

"Oops, you're a slum; you go."
But in fact, these are real
working-class neighborhoods, and

But in fact, these are real
working-class neighborhoods, and
they're organized around real

working-class neighborhoods, and
they're organized around real
manufacturing centers.

They're organized around real
manufacturing centers.
Across the five

manufacturing centers.
Across the five
boroughs, even neighborhoods not

Across the five
boroughs, even neighborhoods not
ravaged by highways and urban

boroughs, even neighborhoods not
ravaged by highways and urban
renewal had begun to stagnate

ravaged by highways and urban
renewal had begun to stagnate
and decline.

Renewal had begun to stagnate
and decline.
By 1960, not a single mile of

and decline.
By 1960, not a single mile of
new subway track had been laid

By 1960, not a single mile of
new subway track had been laid
in more than 20 years; banks and

new subway track had been laid
in more than 20 years; banks and
commercial lenders had all but

in more than 20 years; banks and
commercial lenders had all but
written off the city's aging

commercial lenders had all but
written off the city's aging
housing stock; and the census

written off the city's aging
housing stock; and the census
that year revealed an ominous

housing stock; and the census
that year revealed an ominous
new trend, as the flight to the

that year revealed an ominous
new trend, as the flight to the
suburbs begun ten years before

new trend, as the flight to the
suburbs begun ten years before
now began to accelerate

suburbs begun ten years before
now began to accelerate
dramatically.

Now began to accelerate
dramatically.
The first

dramatically.
The first
challenge for New York is going

The first
challenge for New York is going
to be the decline of the tax

challenge for New York is going
to be the decline of the tax
base in the 1950s and 1960s as

to be the decline of the tax
base in the 1950s and 1960s as
white, middle-class New Yorkers

base in the 1950s and 1960s as
white, middle-class New Yorkers
flee the city.

White, middle-class New Yorkers
flee the city.
You know, after World War II,

flee the city.
You know, after World War II,
500,000 white Brooklynites move

You know, after World War II,
500,000 white Brooklynites move
out of that borough in 20 years.

500,000 white Brooklynites move
out of that borough in 20 years.
Now, the population of the

out of that borough in 20 years.
Now, the population of the
borough remains the same because

Now, the population of the
borough remains the same because
more than 500,000 black people

borough remains the same because
more than 500,000 black people
move in.

More than 500,000 black people
move in.
But, ultimately, the effect of

move in.
But, ultimately, the effect of
it is actually extraordinary.

But, ultimately, the effect of
it is actually extraordinary.
We've replaced middle-class

it is actually extraordinary.
We've replaced middle-class
communities with poorer

We've replaced middle-class
communities with poorer
communities, and we've isolated

communities with poorer
communities, and we've isolated
poor people inside inner cities

communities, and we've isolated
poor people inside inner cities
with very few economic

poor people inside inner cities
with very few economic
opportunities, very little

with very few economic
opportunities, very little
chance of mobility.

Opportunities, very little
chance of mobility.
And there was more

chance of mobility.
And there was more
trouble to come.

And there was more
trouble to come.
As suburbanization and white

trouble to come.
As suburbanization and white
flight continued and the flight

As suburbanization and white
flight continued and the flight
of industry begun ten years

flight continued and the flight
of industry begun ten years
before accelerated dramatically,

of industry begun ten years
before accelerated dramatically,
another exodus was underway on

before accelerated dramatically,
another exodus was underway on
the waterfront, where a

another exodus was underway on
the waterfront, where a
revolution in shipping methods

the waterfront, where a
revolution in shipping methods
was causing the great port

revolution in shipping methods
was causing the great port
itself, the city's lifeblood and

was causing the great port
itself, the city's lifeblood and
mainstay for more than three and

itself, the city's lifeblood and
mainstay for more than three and
a half centuries, to spiral into

mainstay for more than three and
a half centuries, to spiral into
decline.

A half centuries, to spiral into
decline.
Where there were

decline.
Where there were
100,000 and more longshoremen in

Where there were
100,000 and more longshoremen in
New York in 1950, as you begin

100,000 and more longshoremen in
New York in 1950, as you begin
to shift to containerization,

New York in 1950, as you begin
to shift to containerization,
you just need one guy in a cab

to shift to containerization,
you just need one guy in a cab
and somebody else to hook the

you just need one guy in a cab
and somebody else to hook the
thing onto the container and

and somebody else to hook the
thing onto the container and
maybe one guy just to kind of

thing onto the container and
maybe one guy just to kind of
ease it into place.

Maybe one guy just to kind of
ease it into place.
And they lift these whole

ease it into place.
And they lift these whole
containers.

And they lift these whole
containers.
These need lots of space for

containers.
These need lots of space for
that.

These need lots of space for
that.
Well, New York City doesn't have

that.
Well, New York City doesn't have
lots of space.

Well, New York City doesn't have
lots of space.
You need hundreds of acres to

lots of space.
You need hundreds of acres to
stack up the containers, to move

You need hundreds of acres to
stack up the containers, to move
18-wheel tractor-trailer trucks

stack up the containers, to move
18-wheel tractor-trailer trucks
to turn around.

18-wheel tractor-trailer trucks
to turn around.
Well, they found that on the New

to turn around.
Well, they found that on the New
Jersey side.

Well, they found that on the New
Jersey side.
So in these two huge areas, just

Jersey side.
So in these two huge areas, just
these two... industrial jobs,

So in these two huge areas, just
these two... industrial jobs,
harbor jobs... New York City

these two... industrial jobs,
harbor jobs... New York City
hemorrhages in those let's say

harbor jobs... New York City
hemorrhages in those let's say
15 or 20 years really after the

hemorrhages in those let's say
15 or 20 years really after the
end of World War II.

15 or 20 years really after the
end of World War II.
And I think it's one

end of World War II.
And I think it's one
of the ways of noticing how to

And I think it's one
of the ways of noticing how to
make the city work.

Of the ways of noticing how to
make the city work.
If the port doesn't work, the

make the city work.
If the port doesn't work, the
city's not going to work.

If the port doesn't work, the
city's not going to work.
And that sense of the thriving,

city's not going to work.
And that sense of the thriving,
noisy, dirty, exuberant

And that sense of the thriving,
noisy, dirty, exuberant
waterfront is gone now.

Noisy, dirty, exuberant
waterfront is gone now.
Take a ride down the West Side

waterfront is gone now.
Take a ride down the West Side
Drive now, what's left of it.

Take a ride down the West Side
Drive now, what's left of it.
You see some of the piers just

Drive now, what's left of it.
You see some of the piers just
rotting into the river like bad

You see some of the piers just
rotting into the river like bad
teeth.

Rotting into the river like bad
teeth.
There's no people working on

teeth.
There's no people working on
them.

There's no people working on
them.
You have the one luxury liner

them.
You have the one luxury liner
pier, but that's not what it was

You have the one luxury liner
pier, but that's not what it was
up until 1962, where you would

pier, but that's not what it was
up until 1962, where you would
see liner after liner after

up until 1962, where you would
see liner after liner after
liner.

See liner after liner after
liner.
Maybe the great symbol of what

liner.
Maybe the great symbol of what
happened to that waterfront is

Maybe the great symbol of what
happened to that waterfront is
one of its greatest attractions

happened to that waterfront is
one of its greatest attractions
right now, which is the

one of its greatest attractions
right now, which is the
Intrepid, which is a ship that

right now, which is the
Intrepid, which is a ship that
doesn't sail.

Intrepid, which is a ship that
doesn't sail.
It's got a flight deck covered

doesn't sail.
It's got a flight deck covered
with ferocious-looking jet

It's got a flight deck covered
with ferocious-looking jet
warplanes whose noses are

with ferocious-looking jet
warplanes whose noses are
pointed straight at H&H Bagels.

Warplanes whose noses are
pointed straight at H&H Bagels.
It's crowded every weekend, but

pointed straight at H&H Bagels.
It's crowded every weekend, but
it doesn't go anywhere.

It's crowded every weekend, but
it doesn't go anywhere.
So it employs people really as a

it doesn't go anywhere.
So it employs people really as a
function of memory rather than

So it employs people really as a
function of memory rather than
of anything that's active or new

function of memory rather than
of anything that's active or new
or thriving.

Of anything that's active or new
or thriving.
It's a museum.

Or thriving.
It's a museum.
By 1962, New York

It's a museum.
By 1962, New York
seemed to many people to have

By 1962, New York
seemed to many people to have
lost its way.

Seemed to many people to have
lost its way.
Only 30 years before, F. Scott

lost its way.
Only 30 years before, F. Scott
Fitzgerald had stood atop the

Only 30 years before, F. Scott
Fitzgerald had stood atop the
Empire State Building and gazed

Fitzgerald had stood atop the
Empire State Building and gazed
out into the endless expanse of

Empire State Building and gazed
out into the endless expanse of
blue and green that stretched

out into the endless expanse of
blue and green that stretched
beyond the city's borders,

blue and green that stretched
beyond the city's borders,
filled with despair to see that

beyond the city's borders,
filled with despair to see that
the city itself had limits.

Filled with despair to see that
the city itself had limits.
Now a new kind of despair could

the city itself had limits.
Now a new kind of despair could
be discerned from the city's

Now a new kind of despair could
be discerned from the city's
tallest towers.

Be discerned from the city's
tallest towers.
The blue and green that had once

tallest towers.
The blue and green that had once
marked New York's limits had

The blue and green that had once
marked New York's limits had
turned to gray and brown and

marked New York's limits had
turned to gray and brown and
signified something more ominous

turned to gray and brown and
signified something more ominous
still... the limitless suburban

signified something more ominous
still... the limitless suburban
sprawl that was now superseding

still... the limitless suburban
sprawl that was now superseding
the city, an endless

sprawl that was now superseding
the city, an endless
agglomeration of highways,

the city, an endless
agglomeration of highways,
parking lots, and tract-housing

agglomeration of highways,
parking lots, and tract-housing
developments, punctuated by the

parking lots, and tract-housing
developments, punctuated by the
deteriorating cores of older

developments, punctuated by the
deteriorating cores of older
urban areas that now stretched

deteriorating cores of older
urban areas that now stretched
almost continuously from Boston

urban areas that now stretched
almost continuously from Boston
to Washington.

Almost continuously from Boston
to Washington.
New York itself stood at the

to Washington.
New York itself stood at the
very center of what the French

New York itself stood at the
very center of what the French
demographer Jean Gottman called

very center of what the French
demographer Jean Gottman called
megalopolis... an immense area

demographer Jean Gottman called
megalopolis... an immense area
that, by 1960, was home to more

megalopolis... an immense area
that, by 1960, was home to more
than 40 million inhabitants,

that, by 1960, was home to more
than 40 million inhabitants,
nearly one in four Americans.

Than 40 million inhabitants,
nearly one in four Americans.
But by now many wondered if the

nearly one in four Americans.
But by now many wondered if the
very notion of a center still

But by now many wondered if the
very notion of a center still
had any real meaning, or whether

very notion of a center still
had any real meaning, or whether
cities themselves had any reason

had any real meaning, or whether
cities themselves had any reason
for continuing at all.

Cities themselves had any reason
for continuing at all.
"Out for a walk after

for continuing at all.
"Out for a walk after
a week in bed.

"Out for a walk after
a week in bed.
I find them tearing up part of

a week in bed.
I find them tearing up part of
my block.

I find them tearing up part of
my block.
As usual, everything in New York

my block.
As usual, everything in New York
is torn down before you have had

As usual, everything in New York
is torn down before you have had
time to care for it.

Is torn down before you have had
time to care for it.
You would think the simple fact

time to care for it.
You would think the simple fact
of having lasted threatened our

You would think the simple fact
of having lasted threatened our
cities like mysterious fires."

of having lasted threatened our
cities like mysterious fires."
James Merrill.

Cities like mysterious fires."
James Merrill.
"Until the first

James Merrill.
"Until the first
blows fell, no one was really

"Until the first
blows fell, no one was really
convinced that Penn Station

blows fell, no one was really
convinced that Penn Station
would really be demolished or

convinced that Penn Station
would really be demolished or
that New York would permit this

would really be demolished or
that New York would permit this
monumental act of vandalism

that New York would permit this
monumental act of vandalism
against one of the largest and

monumental act of vandalism
against one of the largest and
finest landmarks of its age.

Against one of the largest and
finest landmarks of its age.
Any city gets what it admires

finest landmarks of its age.
Any city gets what it admires
and will pay for and ultimately

Any city gets what it admires
and will pay for and ultimately
deserves.

And will pay for and ultimately
deserves.
And we will probably be judged

deserves.
And we will probably be judged
not by the monuments we build,

And we will probably be judged
not by the monuments we build,
but the monuments we destroy."

not by the monuments we build,
but the monuments we destroy."
Ada Louise Huxtable.

But the monuments we destroy."
Ada Louise Huxtable.
One of the worst

Ada Louise Huxtable.
One of the worst
things that's happened in New

One of the worst
things that's happened in New
York's history is the loss of

things that's happened in New
York's history is the loss of
Penn Station.

York's history is the loss of
Penn Station.
Penn was so traumatic because

Penn Station.
Penn was so traumatic because
this was something that belonged

Penn was so traumatic because
this was something that belonged
to everybody and that people

this was something that belonged
to everybody and that people
felt was so beautiful, and that

to everybody and that people
felt was so beautiful, and that
they were so proud of that they

felt was so beautiful, and that
they were so proud of that they
just took it for granted, felt

they were so proud of that they
just took it for granted, felt
that it... you know, it couldn't

just took it for granted, felt
that it... you know, it couldn't
possibly be torn down.

That it... you know, it couldn't
possibly be torn down.
Could you tear down the Grand

possibly be torn down.
Could you tear down the Grand
Canyon?

Could you tear down the Grand
Canyon?
And then it was, and they put

Canyon?
And then it was, and they put
this really disgusting rabbit

And then it was, and they put
this really disgusting rabbit
warren in its place.

This really disgusting rabbit
warren in its place.
McCULLOUGH: How tragic, how

warren in its place.
McCULLOUGH: How tragic, how
sad that so many Americans will

McCULLOUGH: How tragic, how
sad that so many Americans will
never know what it was like to

sad that so many Americans will
never know what it was like to
arrive in New York for the first

never know what it was like to
arrive in New York for the first
time in your life at Penn

arrive in New York for the first
time in your life at Penn
Station.

Time in your life at Penn
Station.
It was spectacular.

Station.
It was spectacular.
If you had never been to New

It was spectacular.
If you had never been to New
York before and you came into

If you had never been to New
York before and you came into
the city for the first time and

York before and you came into
the city for the first time and
you came out and there you were

the city for the first time and
you came out and there you were
in this breathtaking, manmade,

you came out and there you were
in this breathtaking, manmade,
wondrous, architectural place.

In this breathtaking, manmade,
wondrous, architectural place.
Vincent Scully says that we used

wondrous, architectural place.
Vincent Scully says that we used
to come into New York like gods

Vincent Scully says that we used
to come into New York like gods
when we came into Penn Station.

To come into New York like gods
when we came into Penn Station.
Now we come into the present

when we came into Penn Station.
Now we come into the present
Penn Station like rats.

Now we come into the present
Penn Station like rats.
It was one of the worst things

Penn Station like rats.
It was one of the worst things
to happen to an American

It was one of the worst things
to happen to an American
treasure... not just in New York,

to happen to an American
treasure... not just in New York,
but in the whole country.

Treasure... not just in New York,
but in the whole country.
Pennsylvania

but in the whole country.
Pennsylvania
Station, the greatest

Pennsylvania
Station, the greatest
architectural monument of the

Station, the greatest
architectural monument of the
imperial age of rail, had stood

architectural monument of the
imperial age of rail, had stood
for more than half a century at

imperial age of rail, had stood
for more than half a century at
the corner of Seventh Avenue and

for more than half a century at
the corner of Seventh Avenue and
33rd Street in New York, when in

the corner of Seventh Avenue and
33rd Street in New York, when in
the spring of 1961, the

33rd Street in New York, when in
the spring of 1961, the
financially troubled

the spring of 1961, the
financially troubled
Pennsylvania Railroad announced

financially troubled
Pennsylvania Railroad announced
plans to tear the magnificent

Pennsylvania Railroad announced
plans to tear the magnificent
structure down and replace it

plans to tear the magnificent
structure down and replace it
with a high-rise glass and steel

structure down and replace it
with a high-rise glass and steel
office tower and sports

with a high-rise glass and steel
office tower and sports
facility, hoping it would bring

office tower and sports
facility, hoping it would bring
in more money.

Facility, hoping it would bring
in more money.
Though some voices were raised

in more money.
Though some voices were raised
in protest, the coalition of

Though some voices were raised
in protest, the coalition of
architects, writers, and

in protest, the coalition of
architects, writers, and
historians who tried to stop the

architects, writers, and
historians who tried to stop the
demolition could do nothing to

historians who tried to stop the
demolition could do nothing to
save Penn Station from the

demolition could do nothing to
save Penn Station from the
wrecker's ball.

Save Penn Station from the
wrecker's ball.
And two years later, on the

wrecker's ball.
And two years later, on the
morning of October 28, 1963, the

And two years later, on the
morning of October 28, 1963, the
demolition began.

Morning of October 28, 1963, the
demolition began.
It would take more than three

demolition began.
It would take more than three
years in all to pull the great

It would take more than three
years in all to pull the great
stone structure down.

Years in all to pull the great
stone structure down.
One by one, the enormous Doric

stone structure down.
One by one, the enormous Doric
columns, winged eagles, and

One by one, the enormous Doric
columns, winged eagles, and
granite angels that had

columns, winged eagles, and
granite angels that had
ornamented its facade were cut

granite angels that had
ornamented its facade were cut
down, carted away, and dumped in

ornamented its facade were cut
down, carted away, and dumped in
a foul-smelling swamp in the New

down, carted away, and dumped in
a foul-smelling swamp in the New
Jersey meadowlands.

It is
inconceivable that Penn Station

inconceivable that Penn Station
was destroyed, demolished for

was destroyed, demolished for
one of the sorriest replacements

one of the sorriest replacements
that one could ever imagine.
Everything about the ambition of

Everything about the ambition of
Penn Station and of the great
railroad stations expresses the

Penn Station and of the great
railroad stations expresses the
kind of power that had been

railroad stations expresses the
kind of power that had been
concentrated in New York.

Kind of power that had been
concentrated in New York.
The loss of it was a sad

concentrated in New York.
The loss of it was a sad
commentary on the ideology of

The loss of it was a sad
commentary on the ideology of
modernism, the belief that new

commentary on the ideology of
modernism, the belief that new
is better, the belief that

modernism, the belief that new
is better, the belief that
modern efficiency or that the

is better, the belief that
modern efficiency or that the
profiting from new construction

modern efficiency or that the
profiting from new construction
is an adequate replacement for

profiting from new construction
is an adequate replacement for
the traditions, the heritage,

is an adequate replacement for
the traditions, the heritage,
and the real meaning of places

the traditions, the heritage,
and the real meaning of places
in people's lives.

And the real meaning of places
in people's lives.
The loss of Penn

in people's lives.
The loss of Penn
Station seemed to many an

The loss of Penn
Station seemed to many an
irrefutable confirmation that

Station seemed to many an
irrefutable confirmation that
the age of rail had come to an

irrefutable confirmation that
the age of rail had come to an
end and that the age of the

the age of rail had come to an
end and that the age of the
automobile had triumphed.

End and that the age of the
automobile had triumphed.
And in many ways it had.

Automobile had triumphed.
And in many ways it had.
But more than most people

And in many ways it had.
But more than most people
understood at the time, the

But more than most people
understood at the time, the
destruction of Penn Station had

understood at the time, the
destruction of Penn Station had
marked a crucial turning point

destruction of Penn Station had
marked a crucial turning point
in the life of New York City.

Marked a crucial turning point
in the life of New York City.
It's when that comes

in the life of New York City.
It's when that comes
down that a sense of sacrilege

It's when that comes
down that a sense of sacrilege
really activates people.

Down that a sense of sacrilege
really activates people.
It's destroying the past.

Really activates people.
It's destroying the past.
It is symbolic of the triumph of

It's destroying the past.
It is symbolic of the triumph of
the auto era over the old,

It is symbolic of the triumph of
the auto era over the old,
interconnected, mass-transit

the auto era over the old,
interconnected, mass-transit
operations.

Interconnected, mass-transit
operations.
It generated, for

operations.
It generated, for
many people, a different

It generated, for
many people, a different
attitude about the new.

Many people, a different
attitude about the new.
You know, maybe the tradition of

attitude about the new.
You know, maybe the tradition of
the new, you know, wasn't

You know, maybe the tradition of
the new, you know, wasn't
something that we should

the new, you know, wasn't
something that we should
celebrate so uncritically.

Something that we should
celebrate so uncritically.
I think what was

celebrate so uncritically.
I think what was
gained was even more important

I think what was
gained was even more important
than what was lost.

Gained was even more important
than what was lost.
And what was lost was, of

than what was lost.
And what was lost was, of
course, one of the last really

And what was lost was, of
course, one of the last really
magnificent Beaux Arts

course, one of the last really
magnificent Beaux Arts
constructions, in terms of

magnificent Beaux Arts
constructions, in terms of
design and space and material

constructions, in terms of
design and space and material
and architectural quality.

Design and space and material
and architectural quality.
That was lost.

And architectural quality.
That was lost.
What was gained was an enormous

That was lost.
What was gained was an enormous
ground swell, popular ground

What was gained was an enormous
ground swell, popular ground
swell for preservation, that not

ground swell, popular ground
swell for preservation, that not
everything was expendable and

swell for preservation, that not
everything was expendable and
that some things were worth a

everything was expendable and
that some things were worth a
struggle; that you had to find

that some things were worth a
struggle; that you had to find
uses, you had to find ways to

struggle; that you had to find
uses, you had to find ways to
keep the character and the

uses, you had to find ways to
keep the character and the
quality and the continuity of a

keep the character and the
quality and the continuity of a
city.

Quality and the continuity of a
city.
It went far beyond actually

city.
It went far beyond actually
losing a station.

It went far beyond actually
losing a station.
It really was a sense of what is

losing a station.
It really was a sense of what is
the city?

It really was a sense of what is
the city?
And how do you have that

the city?
And how do you have that
resonance, really, that you

And how do you have that
resonance, really, that you
get from the past that makes a

resonance, really, that you
get from the past that makes a
city rich and real and a

get from the past that makes a
city rich and real and a
rewarding place to be; that it

city rich and real and a
rewarding place to be; that it
isn't sterile, it isn't the

rewarding place to be; that it
isn't sterile, it isn't the
product of building by the

isn't sterile, it isn't the
product of building by the
bottom line, which, of course,

product of building by the
bottom line, which, of course,
so much construction is?

Bottom line, which, of course,
so much construction is?
"Nobody seems to care

so much construction is?
"Nobody seems to care
about New York, except for those

"Nobody seems to care
about New York, except for those
of us who live and work here.

About New York, except for those
of us who live and work here.
And we who do care believe the

of us who live and work here.
And we who do care believe the
time has come to put a stop to

And we who do care believe the
time has come to put a stop to
the wanton destruction of our

time has come to put a stop to
the wanton destruction of our
greatest buildings, to put a

the wanton destruction of our
greatest buildings, to put a
stop to wholesale vandalism.

Greatest buildings, to put a
stop to wholesale vandalism.
It may be too late to save Penn

stop to wholesale vandalism.
It may be too late to save Penn
Station, but it is not too late

It may be too late to save Penn
Station, but it is not too late
to save New York."

Station, but it is not too late
to save New York."
Jane Jacobs and the Action Group

to save New York."
Jane Jacobs and the Action Group
for Better Architecture in New

Jane Jacobs and the Action Group
for Better Architecture in New
York.

Power is a very unusual
weapon.
But it's a sword whose hilt, as

weapon.
But it's a sword whose hilt, as
well as its blade, is sharp as a

But it's a sword whose hilt, as
well as its blade, is sharp as a
razor, so that it cuts into not

well as its blade, is sharp as a
razor, so that it cuts into not
only the people on whom it is

razor, so that it cuts into not
only the people on whom it is
used, but it cuts into the man

only the people on whom it is
used, but it cuts into the man
who's using it, changing him.

Used, but it cuts into the man
who's using it, changing him.
And we see in the career of

who's using it, changing him.
And we see in the career of
Robert Moses a change, a

And we see in the career of
Robert Moses a change, a
personal change, as he gets more

Robert Moses a change, a
personal change, as he gets more
and more power and wants more

personal change, as he gets more
and more power and wants more
and more power.

In his early days, he wanted
power for the sake of the things

power for the sake of the things
he wanted built.

He wanted built.
More and more... you can chart it

More and more... you can chart it
decade by decade... he chooses

decade by decade... he chooses
the things to build because of

the things to build because of
the power that they will give

the power that they will give
him.
By the early 1960s,

By the early 1960s,
the master plan Robert Moses had
laid out for the remaking of New

the master plan Robert Moses had
laid out for the remaking of New
York more than three decades

laid out for the remaking of New
York more than three decades
before was all but complete.

York more than three decades
before was all but complete.
Hundreds of miles of parkways

before was all but complete.
Hundreds of miles of parkways
and expressways and dozens of

Hundreds of miles of parkways
and expressways and dozens of
bridges and tunnels now

and expressways and dozens of
bridges and tunnels now
connected the city to the

bridges and tunnels now
connected the city to the
suburban reaches of Long Island

connected the city to the
suburban reaches of Long Island
and beyond.

Suburban reaches of Long Island
and beyond.
Hundreds more had been driven

and beyond.
Hundreds more had been driven
through the outer boroughs

Hundreds more had been driven
through the outer boroughs
themselves, "weaving together,"

through the outer boroughs
themselves, "weaving together,"
as Moses himself declared, "the

themselves, "weaving together,"
as Moses himself declared, "the
loose strands and frayed edges

as Moses himself declared, "the
loose strands and frayed edges
of the metropolitan arterial

loose strands and frayed edges
of the metropolitan arterial
tapestry."

of the metropolitan arterial
tapestry."
But in all the frenzy of

tapestry."
But in all the frenzy of
construction, the master builder

But in all the frenzy of
construction, the master builder
had never been able to penetrate

construction, the master builder
had never been able to penetrate
the heart of Manhattan itself

had never been able to penetrate
the heart of Manhattan itself
with a superhighway.

The heart of Manhattan itself
with a superhighway.
And in 1961, he resolved to do

with a superhighway.
And in 1961, he resolved to do
something about it, fixing in

And in 1961, he resolved to do
something about it, fixing in
his sights a low-lying area of

something about it, fixing in
his sights a low-lying area of
lower Manhattan stretching from

his sights a low-lying area of
lower Manhattan stretching from
Chinatown in the south up

lower Manhattan stretching from
Chinatown in the south up
through the wayward lanes and

Chinatown in the south up
through the wayward lanes and
ancient side streets of

through the wayward lanes and
ancient side streets of
Greenwich Village.

Ancient side streets of
Greenwich Village.
"We simply repeat

Greenwich Village.
"We simply repeat
that cities are created by and

"We simply repeat
that cities are created by and
for traffic.

That cities are created by and
for traffic.
A city without traffic is a

for traffic.
A city without traffic is a
ghost town.

A city without traffic is a
ghost town.
The area between Canal Street

ghost town.
The area between Canal Street
and Third Street, a strip three-

The area between Canal Street
and Third Street, a strip three-
quarters of a mile wide, is the

and Third Street, a strip three-
quarters of a mile wide, is the
most depressed area in lower

quarters of a mile wide, is the
most depressed area in lower
Manhattan, and one of the worst,

most depressed area in lower
Manhattan, and one of the worst,
if not the worst, slums in the

Manhattan, and one of the worst,
if not the worst, slums in the
entire city."

if not the worst, slums in the
entire city."
Robert Moses.

Entire city."
Robert Moses.
Condemning the West

Robert Moses.
Condemning the West
Village as a slum and the old

Condemning the West
Village as a slum and the old
cast-iron district to the south

Village as a slum and the old
cast-iron district to the south
as an obstacle to the free flow

cast-iron district to the south
as an obstacle to the free flow
of traffic, by 1961 he had set

as an obstacle to the free flow
of traffic, by 1961 he had set
in motion two immense federal

of traffic, by 1961 he had set
in motion two immense federal
initiatives: a vast urban-

in motion two immense federal
initiatives: a vast urban-
renewal project that would level

initiatives: a vast urban-
renewal project that would level
14 entire blocks along Hudson

renewal project that would level
14 entire blocks along Hudson
Street in the Village, and an

14 entire blocks along Hudson
Street in the Village, and an
eight-lane elevated highway, one

Street in the Village, and an
eight-lane elevated highway, one
of his most cherished dreams,

eight-lane elevated highway, one
of his most cherished dreams,
that would drive straight across

of his most cherished dreams,
that would drive straight across
the heart of Lower Manhattan

that would drive straight across
the heart of Lower Manhattan
from the East River to the

the heart of Lower Manhattan
from the East River to the
Hudson, destroying thousands of

from the East River to the
Hudson, destroying thousands of
historic structures and

Hudson, destroying thousands of
historic structures and
displacing nearly 10,000

historic structures and
displacing nearly 10,000
residents and workers.

Displacing nearly 10,000
residents and workers.
It's difficult to even

residents and workers.
It's difficult to even
make anyone understand what

It's difficult to even
make anyone understand what
would've happened.

Make anyone understand what
would've happened.
He would have bulldozed a swath

would've happened.
He would have bulldozed a swath
about 225 feet wide right across

He would have bulldozed a swath
about 225 feet wide right across
lower Manhattan.

About 225 feet wide right across
lower Manhattan.
Today, that's the cast-iron

lower Manhattan.
Today, that's the cast-iron
district of SoHo.

Today, that's the cast-iron
district of SoHo.
What was the vision?

District of SoHo.
What was the vision?
What was the aims of a man who

What was the vision?
What was the aims of a man who
would decide, for the sake of

What was the aims of a man who
would decide, for the sake of
the automobile, to cut a swath

would decide, for the sake of
the automobile, to cut a swath
across a city... across a

the automobile, to cut a swath
across a city... across a
beautiful, vibrant, bustling

across a city... across a
beautiful, vibrant, bustling
part of the city?

Beautiful, vibrant, bustling
part of the city?
And you know, Robert Moses

part of the city?
And you know, Robert Moses
wanted to build three

And you know, Robert Moses
wanted to build three
expressways across New York

wanted to build three
expressways across New York
City, not just the Lower

expressways across New York
City, not just the Lower
Manhattan.

City, not just the Lower
Manhattan.
He had a Mid Manhattan

Manhattan.
He had a Mid Manhattan
Expressway, which would have run

He had a Mid Manhattan
Expressway, which would have run
across 30th Street in the air.

Expressway, which would have run
across 30th Street in the air.
And he wanted to build one again

across 30th Street in the air.
And he wanted to build one again
at ground level at 125th Street,

And he wanted to build one again
at ground level at 125th Street,
an Upper Manhattan Expressway.

At ground level at 125th Street,
an Upper Manhattan Expressway.
For decades,

an Upper Manhattan Expressway.
For decades,
nothing had stopped the

For decades,
nothing had stopped the
juggernaut of road building or

nothing had stopped the
juggernaut of road building or
slowed the rampage of urban

juggernaut of road building or
slowed the rampage of urban
renewal which, in the name of

slowed the rampage of urban
renewal which, in the name of
rebuilding the city, had torn

renewal which, in the name of
rebuilding the city, had torn
the heart out of one community

rebuilding the city, had torn
the heart out of one community
after another.

The heart out of one community
after another.
But this time things would turn

after another.
But this time things would turn
out differently.

But this time things would turn
out differently.
Determined to save Manhattan

out differently.
Determined to save Manhattan
from the devastation that had

Determined to save Manhattan
from the devastation that had
blighted the Bronx, residents of

from the devastation that had
blighted the Bronx, residents of
the Village banded together and

blighted the Bronx, residents of
the Village banded together and
resolved to fight, selecting as

the Village banded together and
resolved to fight, selecting as
their leader a 45-year-old

resolved to fight, selecting as
their leader a 45-year-old
journalist and working mother

their leader a 45-year-old
journalist and working mother
from Hudson Street who had that

journalist and working mother
from Hudson Street who had that
very year published a

from Hudson Street who had that
very year published a
groundbreaking book about the

very year published a
groundbreaking book about the
mistakes of urban planning.

Groundbreaking book about the
mistakes of urban planning.
Her named was Jane Jacobs.

Mistakes of urban planning.
Her named was Jane Jacobs.
The book was called, The Death

Her named was Jane Jacobs.
The book was called, The Death
and Life of Great American

The book was called, The Death
and Life of Great American
Cities, and New York would

and Life of Great American
Cities, and New York would
never be the same again.

And it started out by
saying something like, "This is

saying something like, "This is
an attack on city planning."

an attack on city planning."
And then she went through the

And then she went through the
litany of what Le Corbusier and

litany of what Le Corbusier and
other ideologues had imagined

other ideologues had imagined
what a city should be as opposed

what a city should be as opposed
to what a city really was.
Jane Jacobs was

Jane Jacobs was
taking on the orthodoxies of
planning that had prevailed in

taking on the orthodoxies of
planning that had prevailed in
the post-World War II period,

planning that had prevailed in
the post-World War II period,
the ideas of Le Corbusier and

the post-World War II period,
the ideas of Le Corbusier and
the Bauhaus and other planners

the ideas of Le Corbusier and
the Bauhaus and other planners
who thought that the city needed

the Bauhaus and other planners
who thought that the city needed
to be renewed.

There were areas that needed
help, but the kind of help that

help, but the kind of help that
she saw that they needed was the

she saw that they needed was the
assistance to allow people to

assistance to allow people to
continue living in their

continue living in their
brownstones in the neighborhoods

brownstones in the neighborhoods
where they had a harmony with

where they had a harmony with
their neighbors.
And the destruction of those

And the destruction of those
neighborhoods is one of the
great tragedies of post-World

neighborhoods is one of the
great tragedies of post-World
War II New York.

Great tragedies of post-World
War II New York.
She understood that

War II New York.
She understood that
urban economies are different.

She understood that
urban economies are different.
She understood the sort of

urban economies are different.
She understood the sort of
beehive, thousand-different-

She understood the sort of
beehive, thousand-different-
interdependent-functions nature

beehive, thousand-different-
interdependent-functions nature
of urban economies, and that's

interdependent-functions nature
of urban economies, and that's
what we lose when we surrender

of urban economies, and that's
what we lose when we surrender
the street to the automobile.

When people don't want to be on
the street anymore, when they

the street anymore, when they
reshape their lives in a way

reshape their lives in a way
that they're always in

that they're always in
privatized space rather than

privatized space rather than
sharing public space... Jane

sharing public space... Jane
Jacobs knew 35 years ago that

Jacobs knew 35 years ago that
that was a recipe for the

that was a recipe for the
destruction of what makes cities

destruction of what makes cities
wonderful.
"Look what they have

"Look what they have
built: low-income projects that
become worse centers of

built: low-income projects that
become worse centers of
delinquency and vandalism than

become worse centers of
delinquency and vandalism than
the slums they were supposed to

delinquency and vandalism than
the slums they were supposed to
replace, promenades that go from

the slums they were supposed to
replace, promenades that go from
no place to nowhere and have no

replace, promenades that go from
no place to nowhere and have no
promenaders, expressways that

no place to nowhere and have no
promenaders, expressways that
eviscerate great cities.

Promenaders, expressways that
eviscerate great cities.
This is not the rebuilding of

eviscerate great cities.
This is not the rebuilding of
cities.

This is not the rebuilding of
cities.
This is the sacking of cities."

cities.
This is the sacking of cities."
Jane Jacobs.

This is the sacking of cities."
Jane Jacobs.
She hit the nerve

Jane Jacobs.
She hit the nerve
at the right moment with that

She hit the nerve
at the right moment with that
book.

At the right moment with that
book.
It was the right book at exactly

book.
It was the right book at exactly
the right moment, because she

It was the right book at exactly
the right moment, because she
made people see particulars.

The right moment, because she
made people see particulars.
She made them see the street.

This had been a period of urban
renewal when everything was on a

renewal when everything was on a
model, on a big plan, or a

model, on a big plan, or a
drawing with overlays.

Drawing with overlays.
And she made people look at the

And she made people look at the
street and what was there.
She spoke about the eyes on the

She spoke about the eyes on the
street, the smaller buildings
where people looked out and

street, the smaller buildings
where people looked out and
watched their neighbors.

Where people looked out and
watched their neighbors.
She spoke about the small

watched their neighbors.
She spoke about the small
stores, the mom-and-pop stores...

She spoke about the small
stores, the mom-and-pop stores...
all the things that urban

stores, the mom-and-pop stores...
all the things that urban
renewal not only was destroying,

all the things that urban
renewal not only was destroying,
but didn't acknowledge existed.

Renewal not only was destroying,
but didn't acknowledge existed.
She basically said

but didn't acknowledge existed.
She basically said
that from her house at 555

She basically said
that from her house at 555
Hudson Street in the West

that from her house at 555
Hudson Street in the West
Village, from the sidewalk of

Hudson Street in the West
Village, from the sidewalk of
her block, you could observe

Village, from the sidewalk of
her block, you could observe
what a whole city was like.

Her block, you could observe
what a whole city was like.
But it returned the discussion

what a whole city was like.
But it returned the discussion
of what urbanism should be

But it returned the discussion
of what urbanism should be
about, what New York should be

of what urbanism should be
about, what New York should be
about... from big land-plan games

about, what New York should be
about... from big land-plan games
to individuals, shops, streets,

about... from big land-plan games
to individuals, shops, streets,
cars, crosswalks, networks of

to individuals, shops, streets,
cars, crosswalks, networks of
people.

Cars, crosswalks, networks of
people.
People rich and poor living more

people.
People rich and poor living more
closely together; less concern

People rich and poor living more
closely together; less concern
with the elevator to the 35th

closely together; less concern
with the elevator to the 35th
floor and more concerned with

with the elevator to the 35th
floor and more concerned with
the life in the five-story

floor and more concerned with
the life in the five-story
walkup.

The life in the five-story
walkup.
"Under the seeming

walkup.
"Under the seeming
disorder of the old city,

"Under the seeming
disorder of the old city,
wherever the old city is working

disorder of the old city,
wherever the old city is working
successfully, is a marvelous

wherever the old city is working
successfully, is a marvelous
order for maintaining the safety

successfully, is a marvelous
order for maintaining the safety
of the streets and the freedom

order for maintaining the safety
of the streets and the freedom
of the city.

Of the streets and the freedom
of the city.
It is a complex order.

Of the city.
It is a complex order.
Its essence is the intricacy of

It is a complex order.
Its essence is the intricacy of
sidewalk use, bringing with it a

Its essence is the intricacy of
sidewalk use, bringing with it a
constant succession of eyes.

Sidewalk use, bringing with it a
constant succession of eyes.
This order is composed of

constant succession of eyes.
This order is composed of
movement and change, and we may

This order is composed of
movement and change, and we may
liken it to the dance... not to a

movement and change, and we may
liken it to the dance... not to a
simple-minded precision dance,

liken it to the dance... not to a
simple-minded precision dance,
but to an intricate ballet in

simple-minded precision dance,
but to an intricate ballet in
which the individual dancers and

but to an intricate ballet in
which the individual dancers and
ensembles all have distinctive

which the individual dancers and
ensembles all have distinctive
parts which miraculously

ensembles all have distinctive
parts which miraculously
reinforce each other and compose

parts which miraculously
reinforce each other and compose
an orderly whole."

reinforce each other and compose
an orderly whole."
Jane Jacobs.

Her writing enabled
people to imagine her block, but

people to imagine her block, but
also enabled people to see to

also enabled people to see to
see other blocks.
She created, maybe without

She created, maybe without
intending to do it, a kind of
empathy and opened up

intending to do it, a kind of
empathy and opened up
possibilities for empathy as a

empathy and opened up
possibilities for empathy as a
political force in the '60s.

Possibilities for empathy as a
political force in the '60s.
So that once people could

political force in the '60s.
So that once people could
imagine how other people lived...

So that once people could
imagine how other people lived...
even if they didn't concretely

imagine how other people lived...
even if they didn't concretely
know they could help them, they

even if they didn't concretely
know they could help them, they
could work for them... they could

know they could help them, they
could work for them... they could
work together.

Could work for them... they could
work together.
And when she comes

work together.
And when she comes
out with her book in 1961, it's

And when she comes
out with her book in 1961, it's
not just that it's brilliantly

out with her book in 1961, it's
not just that it's brilliantly
written.

Not just that it's brilliantly
written.
It's pithy.

Written.
It's pithy.
It's punchy.

It's pithy.
It's punchy.
It's down-to-earth.

It's punchy.
It's down-to-earth.
You know, it's enjoyable; it's

It's down-to-earth.
You know, it's enjoyable; it's
entertaining.

You know, it's enjoyable; it's
entertaining.
It's mind capturing.

Entertaining.
It's mind capturing.
It's not just that.

It's mind capturing.
It's not just that.
It's that what she is doing is

It's not just that.
It's that what she is doing is
providing a counternarrative, a

It's that what she is doing is
providing a counternarrative, a
counterargument, a countervision

providing a counternarrative, a
counterargument, a countervision
of what the city is.

It's a vision that says, you
don't want to break out

don't want to break out
manufacturing and send it off

manufacturing and send it off
somewhere else.

Somewhere else.
You don't want to, in fact, send

You don't want to, in fact, send
the citizens off to the suburbs.
What you want to have is an

What you want to have is an
integrated community the way it
used to be, in essence.

Integrated community the way it
used to be, in essence.
But you want to have people in a

used to be, in essence.
But you want to have people in a
position to walk to work.

But you want to have people in a
position to walk to work.
You want small-scale buildings.

Position to walk to work.
You want small-scale buildings.
You want people to be able to

You want small-scale buildings.
You want people to be able to
watch the streets.

You want people to be able to
watch the streets.
I mean, crime, to some extent,

watch the streets.
I mean, crime, to some extent,
is beginning to explode in the

I mean, crime, to some extent,
is beginning to explode in the
city in the '50s.

Is beginning to explode in the
city in the '50s.
And a lot of it is... you know,

city in the '50s.
And a lot of it is... you know,
there is certainly the pathology

And a lot of it is... you know,
there is certainly the pathology
of drugs and such, but it is

there is certainly the pathology
of drugs and such, but it is
also from shattered communities

of drugs and such, but it is
also from shattered communities
that have been renewed and

also from shattered communities
that have been renewed and
removed and highwayed out and

that have been renewed and
removed and highwayed out and
are in turmoil and are about,

removed and highwayed out and
are in turmoil and are about,
you know, in the '60s, to really

are in turmoil and are about,
you know, in the '60s, to really
explode... and not just here

you know, in the '60s, to really
explode... and not just here
again, but all across the

explode... and not just here
again, but all across the
country.

Again, but all across the
country.
Armed with a

country.
Armed with a
philosophy capable of countering

Armed with a
philosophy capable of countering
those in power, Jacobs and her

philosophy capable of countering
those in power, Jacobs and her
colleagues threw themselves into

those in power, Jacobs and her
colleagues threw themselves into
the fight, holding rallies,

colleagues threw themselves into
the fight, holding rallies,
staging demonstrations, and

the fight, holding rallies,
staging demonstrations, and
attacking... in public hearings

staging demonstrations, and
attacking... in public hearings
and in print... the underlying

attacking... in public hearings
and in print... the underlying
assumptions behind the culture

and in print... the underlying
assumptions behind the culture
of the automobile and of urban

assumptions behind the culture
of the automobile and of urban
renewal.

Of the automobile and of urban
renewal.
And also, you know,

renewal.
And also, you know,
Jacobs is an activist.

And also, you know,
Jacobs is an activist.
She doesn't just simply write

Jacobs is an activist.
She doesn't just simply write
about this stuff; but then she's

She doesn't just simply write
about this stuff; but then she's
out in the streets, she's

about this stuff; but then she's
out in the streets, she's
demonstrating.

Out in the streets, she's
demonstrating.
They are trying to block the

demonstrating.
They are trying to block the
Lower Manhattan Expressway.

They are trying to block the
Lower Manhattan Expressway.
They're trying to stop the plan

Lower Manhattan Expressway.
They're trying to stop the plan
to run roadways through

They're trying to stop the plan
to run roadways through
Washington Square.

To run roadways through
Washington Square.
They're counterplanning.

Washington Square.
They're counterplanning.
They're planning a West Village

They're counterplanning.
They're planning a West Village
building project which is based

They're planning a West Village
building project which is based
on rehabilitation.

Building project which is based
on rehabilitation.
As he had in the

on rehabilitation.
As he had in the
Bronx, Robert Moses fought them

As he had in the
Bronx, Robert Moses fought them
every step of the way,

Bronx, Robert Moses fought them
every step of the way,
marshaling every weapon at his

every step of the way,
marshaling every weapon at his
command to blunt the opposition.

Marshaling every weapon at his
command to blunt the opposition.
Those personally

command to blunt the opposition.
Those personally
affected adversely... or he

Those personally
affected adversely... or he
thinks he is... he's going to be

affected adversely... or he
thinks he is... he's going to be
opposed to you.

Thinks he is... he's going to be
opposed to you.
He doesn't want it there.

Opposed to you.
He doesn't want it there.
He doesn't want it done at all

He doesn't want it there.
He doesn't want it done at all
or he wants it done somewhere

He doesn't want it done at all
or he wants it done somewhere
else, wants it moved away.

Or he wants it done somewhere
else, wants it moved away.
Now, he may wrong.

Else, wants it moved away.
Now, he may wrong.
In more than half the cases,

Now, he may wrong.
In more than half the cases,
three-quarters of the cases,

In more than half the cases,
three-quarters of the cases,
he's wrong from his own point of

three-quarters of the cases,
he's wrong from his own point of
view.

He's wrong from his own point of
view.
What do you mean

- view.
- What do you mean

What do you mean
MOSES: I mean by that that he

I mean by that that he
doesn't know what's in his own
interest.

Doesn't know what's in his own
interest.
He isn't smart enough to

interest.
He isn't smart enough to
visualize what you're going to

He isn't smart enough to
visualize what you're going to
do.

Visualize what you're going to
do.
Although once you've built the

do.
Although once you've built the
thing, he comes around and he

Although once you've built the
thing, he comes around and he
tells you he was always for it.

Thing, he comes around and he
tells you he was always for it.
Has that

tells you he was always for it.
Has that
happened to you?

Has that
happened to you?
Oh, all the time.

Happened to you?
Oh, all the time.
All the time.

Oh, all the time.
All the time.
For decades, Robert

All the time.
For decades, Robert
Moses had simply ridden

For decades, Robert
Moses had simply ridden
roughshod over all those who

Moses had simply ridden
roughshod over all those who
disagreed with him, brutally

roughshod over all those who
disagreed with him, brutally
negating the power of votes,

disagreed with him, brutally
negating the power of votes,
Jane Jacobs charged, with the

negating the power of votes,
Jane Jacobs charged, with the
power of money.

Jane Jacobs charged, with the
power of money.
But this time, he had completely

power of money.
But this time, he had completely
misjudged the strength of the

But this time, he had completely
misjudged the strength of the
opposition rising up from

misjudged the strength of the
opposition rising up from
streets of Greenwich Village,

opposition rising up from
streets of Greenwich Village,
which had been the center of

streets of Greenwich Village,
which had been the center of
political dissent in the city

which had been the center of
political dissent in the city
since the days of the Triangle

political dissent in the city
since the days of the Triangle
Shirtwaist Factory fire and

since the days of the Triangle
Shirtwaist Factory fire and
before.

Shirtwaist Factory fire and
before.
I think it

before.
I think it
maybe couldn't have happened

I think it
maybe couldn't have happened
anywhere else.

Maybe couldn't have happened
anywhere else.
The Lower East Side is

anywhere else.
The Lower East Side is
different.

The Lower East Side is
different.
The Village is different.

Different.
The Village is different.
It has a history.

The Village is different.
It has a history.
There were very experienced

It has a history.
There were very experienced
organizers.

There were very experienced
organizers.
We were not Johnny-come-

organizers.
We were not Johnny-come-
latelies.

We not only knew how to
organize.

Organize.
We not only knew how to get

We not only knew how to get
publicity.

Publicity.
We not only knew how to mobilize

We not only knew how to mobilize
the troops, but we knew how to

the troops, but we knew how to
form coalitions.
Mafiosi, radical

Mafiosi, radical
Jews, factory owners, Chinese
merchants... people who

Jews, factory owners, Chinese
merchants... people who
ordinarily never had anything to

merchants... people who
ordinarily never had anything to
say to each other, people who

ordinarily never had anything to
say to each other, people who
ordinarily hated each other...

Say to each other, people who
ordinarily hated each other...
came together to stop this.

Ordinarily hated each other...
came together to stop this.
They discovered that different

came together to stop this.
They discovered that different
kinds of people could work

They discovered that different
kinds of people could work
together and really make a

kinds of people could work
together and really make a
difference and generate a kind

together and really make a
difference and generate a kind
of power that neither of them by

difference and generate a kind
of power that neither of them by
themselves could ever have

of power that neither of them by
themselves could ever have
imagined.

Themselves could ever have
imagined.
They would call a meeting and

imagined.
They would call a meeting and
there would be three times as

They would call a meeting and
there would be three times as
many people as anybody expected.

There would be three times as
many people as anybody expected.
They'd have to find a new hall.

Many people as anybody expected.
They'd have to find a new hall.
And there was a particular

They'd have to find a new hall.
And there was a particular
thrill in this, at the end of

And there was a particular
thrill in this, at the end of
the '50s and the start of the

thrill in this, at the end of
the '50s and the start of the
'60s, that we might be able to

the '50s and the start of the
'60s, that we might be able to
really make a difference.

'60s, that we might be able to
really make a difference.
And that there was a power that

really make a difference.
And that there was a power that
was even greater than the power

And that there was a power that
was even greater than the power
of cars... the power of people.

Was even greater than the power
of cars... the power of people.
At the head of the

of cars... the power of people.
At the head of the
unlikely coalition was Jane

At the head of the
unlikely coalition was Jane
Jacobs herself.

Unlikely coalition was Jane
Jacobs herself.
Frustrated at one public

Jacobs herself.
Frustrated at one public
hearing, she and her colleagues

Frustrated at one public
hearing, she and her colleagues
tore up the stenographer's

hearing, she and her colleagues
tore up the stenographer's
report, then declared that since

tore up the stenographer's
report, then declared that since
there was no official record of

report, then declared that since
there was no official record of
the hearing, there had been no

there was no official record of
the hearing, there had been no
hearing.

The hearing, there had been no
hearing.
She was arrested and charged

hearing.
She was arrested and charged
with riot, inciting to riot,

She was arrested and charged
with riot, inciting to riot,
criminal mischief, and

with riot, inciting to riot,
criminal mischief, and
obstructing public

criminal mischief, and
obstructing public
administration.

Obstructing public
administration.
But public support for her

administration.
But public support for her
actions only grew.

But public support for her
actions only grew.
Mr. Moses says

actions only grew.
Mr. Moses says
that the expressway must go

Mr. Moses says
that the expressway must go
through regardless of who's in

that the expressway must go
through regardless of who's in
the way.

Through regardless of who's in
the way.
Do you agree with that?

The way.
Do you agree with that?
Absolutely not.

Do you agree with that?
Absolutely not.
If this expressway goes through,

Absolutely not.
If this expressway goes through,
it will absolutely be

If this expressway goes through,
it will absolutely be
catastrophic.

It will absolutely be
catastrophic.
This will set a pattern, no

catastrophic.
This will set a pattern, no
doubt there, that will be

This will set a pattern, no
doubt there, that will be
followed there in other parts of

doubt there, that will be
followed there in other parts of
the city.

Followed there in other parts of
the city.
And if he has his way, he'll

the city.
And if he has his way, he'll
crisscross this city north,

And if he has his way, he'll
crisscross this city north,
south, east, and west; bisect

crisscross this city north,
south, east, and west; bisect
it, trisect it every which way

south, east, and west; bisect
it, trisect it every which way
with expressways.

It, trisect it every which way
with expressways.
Expressways to Mr. Moses are

with expressways.
Expressways to Mr. Moses are
evidently more important than

Expressways to Mr. Moses are
evidently more important than
people.

Evidently more important than
people.
The evidence of the

people.
The evidence of the
need of that thing is

The evidence of the
need of that thing is
overwhelming from the point of

need of that thing is
overwhelming from the point of
view of engineering and traffic.

Overwhelming from the point of
view of engineering and traffic.
And that's all

view of engineering and traffic.
And that's all
that matters?

And that's all
that matters?
Well, in the end, yes.

That matters?
Well, in the end, yes.
Congestion gets bad enough, have

Well, in the end, yes.
Congestion gets bad enough, have
to have it.

Congestion gets bad enough, have
to have it.
In the meantime, what happens?

To have it.
In the meantime, what happens?
DeSalvio doesn't want it.

In the meantime, what happens?
DeSalvio doesn't want it.
So what?

DeSalvio doesn't want it.
So what?
The battle over the

So what?
The battle over the
Lower Manhattan Expressway came

The battle over the
Lower Manhattan Expressway came
to a crucial climax on the night

Lower Manhattan Expressway came
to a crucial climax on the night
of December 11, 1962, at a

to a crucial climax on the night
of December 11, 1962, at a
tense, crowded meeting of the

of December 11, 1962, at a
tense, crowded meeting of the
Board of Estimate on the second

tense, crowded meeting of the
Board of Estimate on the second
floor of City Hall.

Board of Estimate on the second
floor of City Hall.
"Except for one old man,"

floor of City Hall.
"Except for one old man,"
assemblyman Louis DeSalvio

"Except for one old man,"
assemblyman Louis DeSalvio
declared, "I've been unable to

assemblyman Louis DeSalvio
declared, "I've been unable to
find anyone of technical

declared, "I've been unable to
find anyone of technical
competence who is for this so-

find anyone of technical
competence who is for this so-
called expressway.

Competence who is for this so-
called expressway.
And this old man is a

called expressway.
And this old man is a
cantankerous, stubborn old man

And this old man is a
cantankerous, stubborn old man
who has done many things which

cantankerous, stubborn old man
who has done many things which
may have, in their time, been

who has done many things which
may have, in their time, been
good for New York City.

May have, in their time, been
good for New York City.
But I think that the time has

good for New York City.
But I think that the time has
come for the stubborn old man to

But I think that the time has
come for the stubborn old man to
realize that too many of his

come for the stubborn old man to
realize that too many of his
dreams turn out to be nightmares

realize that too many of his
dreams turn out to be nightmares
for the city.

Dreams turn out to be nightmares
for the city.
And this board must realize that

for the city.
And this board must realize that
if it does not kill this stupid

And this board must realize that
if it does not kill this stupid
example of bad city planning,

if it does not kill this stupid
example of bad city planning,
that the stench of it will haunt

example of bad city planning,
that the stench of it will haunt
them and this great city for

that the stench of it will haunt
them and this great city for
many years to come."

them and this great city for
many years to come."
Jane Jacobs led the

many years to come."
Jane Jacobs led the
fight against that expressway.

Jane Jacobs led the
fight against that expressway.
That was Moses's last... he

fight against that expressway.
That was Moses's last... he
had many last hurrahs, but

That was Moses's last... he
had many last hurrahs, but
that really did it.

Had many last hurrahs, but
that really did it.
Every major politician...

That really did it.
Every major politician...
Lindsay, Koch, then a

Every major politician...
Lindsay, Koch, then a
congressman... was in it.

Lindsay, Koch, then a
congressman... was in it.
The debates were all over the

congressman... was in it.
The debates were all over the
press, nationally and

The debates were all over the
press, nationally and
internationally.

Press, nationally and
internationally.
And somehow the fate of what an

internationally.
And somehow the fate of what an
inner city... a historic, but

And somehow the fate of what an
inner city... a historic, but
still very modern city... would

inner city... a historic, but
still very modern city... would
be was being decided on.

Still very modern city... would
be was being decided on.
Whether these super projects,

be was being decided on.
Whether these super projects,
whether clearance for housing or

Whether these super projects,
whether clearance for housing or
for an expressway could go

whether clearance for housing or
for an expressway could go
forward in an existing city, or

for an expressway could go
forward in an existing city, or
whether the people who lived

forward in an existing city, or
whether the people who lived
there had rights to their own

whether the people who lived
there had rights to their own
environment.

There had rights to their own
environment.
In the end, Jacobs

environment.
In the end, Jacobs
and her allies prevailed.

In the end, Jacobs
and her allies prevailed.
The Board of Estimate in

and her allies prevailed.
The Board of Estimate in
executive session today voted

The Board of Estimate in
executive session today voted
unanimously to turn down a

executive session today voted
unanimously to turn down a
proposal for a Lower Manhattan

unanimously to turn down a
proposal for a Lower Manhattan
Expressway.

Proposal for a Lower Manhattan
Expressway.
The board... please...

- Expressway.
- The board... please...

- The board... please...
- I wonder how David

I wonder how David
felt when he bested Goliath.

I wonder how David
felt when he bested Goliath.
That's the way we felt.

Felt when he bested Goliath.
That's the way we felt.
We felt, "We beat Robert Moses,"

That's the way we felt.
We felt, "We beat Robert Moses,"
you know?

We felt, "We beat Robert Moses,"
you know?
Sir, you look

you know?
Sir, you look
fairly relieved, too.

Sir, you look
fairly relieved, too.
You lived right in the path of

fairly relieved, too.
You lived right in the path of
the proposed expressway.

You lived right in the path of
the proposed expressway.
Yes, right on Broome

the proposed expressway.
Yes, right on Broome
Street.

Yes, right on Broome
Street.
So this is a

Street.
So this is a
reprieve from a long-time

So this is a
reprieve from a long-time
sentence, isn't it?

Reprieve from a long-time
sentence, isn't it?
It is, yes.

Sentence, isn't it?
It is, yes.
It was the greatest thing the

It is, yes.
It was the greatest thing the
mayor ever did for the people in

It was the greatest thing the
mayor ever did for the people in
that neighborhood, because

mayor ever did for the people in
that neighborhood, because
everybody was worried to death

that neighborhood, because
everybody was worried to death
and everybody was getting sick

everybody was worried to death
and everybody was getting sick
over it.

And everybody was getting sick
over it.
So when they hear this news,

over it.
So when they hear this news,
this will be the best news that

So when they hear this news,
this will be the best news that
they ever heard for Christmas.

This will be the best news that
they ever heard for Christmas.
This will act as a Christmas

they ever heard for Christmas.
This will act as a Christmas
present for the people on Broome

This will act as a Christmas
present for the people on Broome
Street.

Present for the people on Broome
Street.
Would you say that

Street.
Would you say that
the result was in this case a

Would you say that
the result was in this case a
triumph of public opinion

the result was in this case a
triumph of public opinion
against Bob Moses?

Triumph of public opinion
against Bob Moses?
No, no, no.

Against Bob Moses?
No, no, no.
There hasn't been any triumph

No, no, no.
There hasn't been any triumph
for anybody yet.

There hasn't been any triumph
for anybody yet.
Robert Moses always

for anybody yet.
Robert Moses always
felt that he was a tremendous

Robert Moses always
felt that he was a tremendous
failure in Manhattan, that he

felt that he was a tremendous
failure in Manhattan, that he
couldn't communicate his vision

failure in Manhattan, that he
couldn't communicate his vision
to people.

Couldn't communicate his vision
to people.
He built highways around the

to people.
He built highways around the
edges but he could never get

He built highways around the
edges but he could never get
through the center.

Edges but he could never get
through the center.
People just wouldn't buy it.

Through the center.
People just wouldn't buy it.
They stayed attached to their

People just wouldn't buy it.
They stayed attached to their
streets, to their grungy houses,

They stayed attached to their
streets, to their grungy houses,
to their crummy neighborhoods,

streets, to their grungy houses,
to their crummy neighborhoods,
and kept him from doing this.

To their crummy neighborhoods,
and kept him from doing this.
They abstained from the flow.

And kept him from doing this.
They abstained from the flow.
They didn't want to be part of

They abstained from the flow.
They didn't want to be part of
the flow.

They didn't want to be part of
the flow.
One result of this is that

the flow.
One result of this is that
Manhattan is one of the very few

One result of this is that
Manhattan is one of the very few
parts of America where you can

Manhattan is one of the very few
parts of America where you can
live a whole life without a car

parts of America where you can
live a whole life without a car
and where your daily life can

live a whole life without a car
and where your daily life can
depend on the street and on

and where your daily life can
depend on the street and on
interacting with other people

depend on the street and on
interacting with other people
and on seeing what's going to

interacting with other people
and on seeing what's going to
happen in ways that you don't

and on seeing what's going to
happen in ways that you don't
plan.

Happen in ways that you don't
plan.
And in that way, New York is

plan.
And in that way, New York is
different from, I think,

And in that way, New York is
different from, I think,
probably every other American

different from, I think,
probably every other American
city.

Probably every other American
city.
It may be the only American city

city.
It may be the only American city
without an expressway going

It may be the only American city
without an expressway going
through the center of town.

Without an expressway going
through the center of town.
And Moses felt extremely

through the center of town.
And Moses felt extremely
frustrated and mortified by

And Moses felt extremely
frustrated and mortified by
this, but he just couldn't do

frustrated and mortified by
this, but he just couldn't do
it.

This, but he just couldn't do
it.
The community protests were too

it.
The community protests were too
great.

The community protests were too
great.
It was a crucial

great.
It was a crucial
turning point in life of New

It was a crucial
turning point in life of New
York and in the culture of

turning point in life of New
York and in the culture of
cities everywhere.

York and in the culture of
cities everywhere.
With their stunning victory,

cities everywhere.
With their stunning victory,
Jacobs and her allies had

With their stunning victory,
Jacobs and her allies had
reasserted the value of the city

Jacobs and her allies had
reasserted the value of the city
block and by extension that of

reasserted the value of the city
block and by extension that of
urban public space itself,

block and by extension that of
urban public space itself,
challenging the most basic

urban public space itself,
challenging the most basic
assumptions upon which New York

challenging the most basic
assumptions upon which New York
had proceeded since the dawn of

assumptions upon which New York
had proceeded since the dawn of
the modern age: that the new was

had proceeded since the dawn of
the modern age: that the new was
always better than the old.

The modern age: that the new was
always better than the old.
And there's a

always better than the old.
And there's a
sensitivity to history which is

And there's a
sensitivity to history which is
also a new dimension to this.

Sensitivity to history which is
also a new dimension to this.
I mean, you got to understand

also a new dimension to this.
I mean, you got to understand
that since the '20s it's been

I mean, you got to understand
that since the '20s it's been
modern, modern, modern.

That since the '20s it's been
modern, modern, modern.
And "modern" means dump the

modern, modern, modern.
And "modern" means dump the
past, break with the past.

And "modern" means dump the
past, break with the past.
Think new, think Art Deco, think

past, break with the past.
Think new, think Art Deco, think
streamline, think projectile,

Think new, think Art Deco, think
streamline, think projectile,
think...

streamline, think projectile,
think...
You know, tear down the old

think...
You know, tear down the old
stuff, not just because...

You know, tear down the old
stuff, not just because...
although it may be, you know, a

stuff, not just because...
although it may be, you know, a
constraint on our ability to

although it may be, you know, a
constraint on our ability to
make profits, but because it's

constraint on our ability to
make profits, but because it's
old; because the new is

make profits, but because it's
old; because the new is
intrinsically superior to the

old; because the new is
intrinsically superior to the
old.

Intrinsically superior to the
old.
But Jacobs says, "Wait a

old.
But Jacobs says, "Wait a
minute."

But Jacobs says, "Wait a
minute."
Part of the texture of life in a

minute."
Part of the texture of life in a
city is that people are not just

Part of the texture of life in a
city is that people are not just
connected to each other on the

city is that people are not just
connected to each other on the
street by virtue of being

connected to each other on the
street by virtue of being
neighbors, but they're connected

street by virtue of being
neighbors, but they're connected
in time.

Neighbors, but they're connected
in time.
There's some sense in the

in time.
There's some sense in the
buildings around you that, you

There's some sense in the
buildings around you that, you
know, remain that give you a

buildings around you that, you
know, remain that give you a
sense of being part of a

know, remain that give you a
sense of being part of a
continuum.

Sense of being part of a
continuum.
You know the history isn't dead.

Continuum.
You know the history isn't dead.
It's not something which has

You know the history isn't dead.
It's not something which has
been transcended.

It's not something which has
been transcended.
Today is not the first day of

been transcended.
Today is not the first day of
the rest of your life.

Today is not the first day of
the rest of your life.
People are beings in time, and

the rest of your life.
People are beings in time, and
they need to be surrounded... not

People are beings in time, and
they need to be surrounded... not
entirely, but, you know, to some

they need to be surrounded... not
entirely, but, you know, to some
extent... by the legacy of the

entirely, but, you know, to some
extent... by the legacy of the
built environment of the past.

Extent... by the legacy of the
built environment of the past.
Three years later,

built environment of the past.
Three years later,
Jacob's triumph would be

Three years later,
Jacob's triumph would be
codified in an extraordinary new

Jacob's triumph would be
codified in an extraordinary new
law, when on April 19, 1965,

codified in an extraordinary new
law, when on April 19, 1965,
Mayor Robert Wagner signed

law, when on April 19, 1965,
Mayor Robert Wagner signed
legislation establishing the

Mayor Robert Wagner signed
legislation establishing the
Landmarks Preservation

legislation establishing the
Landmarks Preservation
Commission.

Landmarks Preservation
Commission.
The agency came two years too

Commission.
The agency came two years too
late to save Penn Station.

The agency came two years too
late to save Penn Station.
But in the years to come it

late to save Penn Station.
But in the years to come it
would save hundreds of

But in the years to come it
would save hundreds of
individual buildings in New York

would save hundreds of
individual buildings in New York
from the wrecker's ball along

individual buildings in New York
from the wrecker's ball along
with entire districts, including

from the wrecker's ball along
with entire districts, including
Brooklyn Heights, Greenwich

with entire districts, including
Brooklyn Heights, Greenwich
Village, and SoHo itself...

Brooklyn Heights, Greenwich
Village, and SoHo itself...
vibrant places Robert Moses had

Village, and SoHo itself...
vibrant places Robert Moses had
yearned so passionately to

vibrant places Robert Moses had
yearned so passionately to
transform.

Yearned so passionately to
transform.
Well, the dark side

transform.
Well, the dark side
of Moses's character was

Well, the dark side
of Moses's character was
probably every bit as prominent

of Moses's character was
probably every bit as prominent
as the bright side, especially

probably every bit as prominent
as the bright side, especially
in the context of New York City.

As the bright side, especially
in the context of New York City.
On the one hand, we can admit

in the context of New York City.
On the one hand, we can admit
that the city needed a Robert

On the one hand, we can admit
that the city needed a Robert
Moses to adapt and become a

that the city needed a Robert
Moses to adapt and become a
modern city.

Moses to adapt and become a
modern city.
On the other hand, Robert Moses

modern city.
On the other hand, Robert Moses
saw the city in some sense as a

On the other hand, Robert Moses
saw the city in some sense as a
transportation problem.

Saw the city in some sense as a
transportation problem.
But New York is more than a

transportation problem.
But New York is more than a
transportation problem.

But New York is more than a
transportation problem.
And having created, let's say,

transportation problem.
And having created, let's say,
the kind of minimal number of

And having created, let's say,
the kind of minimal number of
new roads and new bridges that

the kind of minimal number of
new roads and new bridges that
the city needed to sort of

new roads and new bridges that
the city needed to sort of
function in the second half of

the city needed to sort of
function in the second half of
the 20th century, then he began

function in the second half of
the 20th century, then he began
to maybe continue that beyond

the 20th century, then he began
to maybe continue that beyond
what was absolutely essential.

And persons like Jane Jacobs and
others began to say, "Now wait a

others began to say, "Now wait a
minute, why do we need this

minute, why do we need this
road?"

road?"
That the whole purpose of things

That the whole purpose of things
is not to see how fast you can

is not to see how fast you can
move traffic.

Move traffic.
That there's a city there.

That there's a city there.
That there are people who live

That there are people who live
in neighborhoods, there are

in neighborhoods, there are
people who like it the way it

people who like it the way it
is.
And I think that Moses never

And I think that Moses never
really understood that.
A man who never drove, but who

really understood that.
A man who never drove, but who
created an automobile kind of

A man who never drove, but who
created an automobile kind of
circumstance; a man who was

created an automobile kind of
circumstance; a man who was
responsible for planning and

circumstance; a man who was
responsible for planning and
building this enormous

responsible for planning and
building this enormous
metropolis.

Building this enormous
metropolis.
And I think you can't escape the

metropolis.
And I think you can't escape the
feeling that he really wasn't

And I think you can't escape the
feeling that he really wasn't
comfortable in the very city

feeling that he really wasn't
comfortable in the very city
that he was responsible for

By 1965, the worst
rampages of urban renewal were
over, and the long, fateful

rampages of urban renewal were
over, and the long, fateful
career of Robert Moses was

over, and the long, fateful
career of Robert Moses was
drawing to a close.

Career of Robert Moses was
drawing to a close.
But nothing could stop the

drawing to a close.
But nothing could stop the
onslaught of forces that in the

But nothing could stop the
onslaught of forces that in the
decade to come would break over

onslaught of forces that in the
decade to come would break over
New York City and over older

decade to come would break over
New York City and over older
urban places everywhere as the

New York City and over older
urban places everywhere as the
bill for nearly half a century

urban places everywhere as the
bill for nearly half a century
of massive social change,

bill for nearly half a century
of massive social change,
physical upheaval, and economic

of massive social change,
physical upheaval, and economic
transformation finished coming

physical upheaval, and economic
transformation finished coming
due.

Transformation finished coming
due.
I think that when we

due.
I think that when we
fetished the city form, the

I think that when we
fetished the city form, the
urban form... when traffic lanes

fetished the city form, the
urban form... when traffic lanes
and freeways and tall buildings

urban form... when traffic lanes
and freeways and tall buildings
and business districts become

and freeways and tall buildings
and business districts become
our priority and we forget about

and business districts become
our priority and we forget about
people and neighborhoods, we

our priority and we forget about
people and neighborhoods, we
actually forget about what is

people and neighborhoods, we
actually forget about what is
the lifeblood of a city.

One of the things that we ended
up doing by focusing on the

up doing by focusing on the
urban form... by building taller,

urban form... by building taller,
bigger, faster, better... is that

bigger, faster, better... is that
we actually achieved,

we actually achieved,
physically, what we wanted to.
By the 1960s, New York City has

By the 1960s, New York City has
actually gone through probably
one of the greatest urban

actually gone through probably
one of the greatest urban
building booms in the history of

one of the greatest urban
building booms in the history of
mankind.

Building booms in the history of
mankind.
The problem is it's in financial

mankind.
The problem is it's in financial
crisis.

The problem is it's in financial
crisis.
It's in financial crisis because

crisis.
It's in financial crisis because
we neglected neighborhoods for

It's in financial crisis because
we neglected neighborhoods for
40 years.

We neglected neighborhoods for
40 years.
To a startling

40 years.
To a startling
degree, the vast river of

To a startling
degree, the vast river of
federal funds that had poured

degree, the vast river of
federal funds that had poured
into the city for nearly 20

federal funds that had poured
into the city for nearly 20
years had only served to

into the city for nearly 20
years had only served to
accelerate antiurban trends

years had only served to
accelerate antiurban trends
begun long before, hastening the

accelerate antiurban trends
begun long before, hastening the
flight of industry and the

begun long before, hastening the
flight of industry and the
middle class to the suburbs and

flight of industry and the
middle class to the suburbs and
beyond, while trapping New

middle class to the suburbs and
beyond, while trapping New
York's most vulnerable citizens

beyond, while trapping New
York's most vulnerable citizens
in rapidly expanding ghettoes at

York's most vulnerable citizens
in rapidly expanding ghettoes at
the heart of an inner city

in rapidly expanding ghettoes at
the heart of an inner city
increasingly plagued by

the heart of an inner city
increasingly plagued by
deteriorating finances, rising

increasingly plagued by
deteriorating finances, rising
crime, falling city services,

deteriorating finances, rising
crime, falling city services,
and worsening race relations.

Crime, falling city services,
and worsening race relations.
With resources dwindling and the

and worsening race relations.
With resources dwindling and the
needs of New York's poorest

With resources dwindling and the
needs of New York's poorest
citizens on the rise, years of

needs of New York's poorest
citizens on the rise, years of
simmering racial and social

citizens on the rise, years of
simmering racial and social
tension began to erupt into open

simmering racial and social
tension began to erupt into open
conflict on the city's streets.

Tension began to erupt into open
conflict on the city's streets.
In the summer of 1964, riots

conflict on the city's streets.
In the summer of 1964, riots
once again ripped through Harlem

In the summer of 1964, riots
once again ripped through Harlem
and Bedford-Stuyvesant when an

once again ripped through Harlem
and Bedford-Stuyvesant when an
off-duty policeman shot and

and Bedford-Stuyvesant when an
off-duty policeman shot and
killed a 15-year-old boy.

Off-duty policeman shot and
killed a 15-year-old boy.
The violence that ensued,

killed a 15-year-old boy.
The violence that ensued,
echoing even greater violence in

The violence that ensued,
echoing even greater violence in
cities across America, would

echoing even greater violence in
cities across America, would
continue for five full days and

cities across America, would
continue for five full days and
cast a shadow over the last of

continue for five full days and
cast a shadow over the last of
Robert Wagner's three terms as

cast a shadow over the last of
Robert Wagner's three terms as
mayor.

Robert Wagner's three terms as
mayor.
His successor, a liberal

mayor.
His successor, a liberal
ex-congressman from the Upper

His successor, a liberal
ex-congressman from the Upper
East Side named John Lindsay,

ex-congressman from the Upper
East Side named John Lindsay,
promised New Yorkers a fresh

East Side named John Lindsay,
promised New Yorkers a fresh
start.

Promised New Yorkers a fresh
start.
But from the day he took office

start.
But from the day he took office
on January 1, 1966, the city

But from the day he took office
on January 1, 1966, the city
would be battered by one crisis

on January 1, 1966, the city
would be battered by one crisis
after another, as the first in a

would be battered by one crisis
after another, as the first in a
series of crippling city-wide

after another, as the first in a
series of crippling city-wide
strikes by municipal employees...

Series of crippling city-wide
strikes by municipal employees...
among the lowest paid workers in

strikes by municipal employees...
among the lowest paid workers in
the city... brought New York's

among the lowest paid workers in
the city... brought New York's
transit system to a complete

the city... brought New York's
transit system to a complete
standstill.

Transit system to a complete
standstill.
And the working people

standstill.
And the working people
are going to have the power.

And the working people
are going to have the power.
And the working people, together

are going to have the power.
And the working people, together
with the people who care...

And the working people, together
with the people who care...
In many

with the people who care...
In many
ways, I think New York in the

In many
ways, I think New York in the
'60s and '70s embodied the '60s

ways, I think New York in the
'60s and '70s embodied the '60s
and '70s in all the ambiguities

'60s and '70s embodied the '60s
and '70s in all the ambiguities
and all the tensions in American

and '70s in all the ambiguities
and all the tensions in American
society.

And all the tensions in American
society.
You have a civil-rights movement

society.
You have a civil-rights movement
that is raising all sorts of

You have a civil-rights movement
that is raising all sorts of
problematic questions for people

that is raising all sorts of
problematic questions for people
about the nature of power and

problematic questions for people
about the nature of power and
the nature of access to power.

About the nature of power and
the nature of access to power.
At the same time you have an

the nature of access to power.
At the same time you have an
economic shift.

At the same time you have an
economic shift.
You have money draining off to

economic shift.
You have money draining off to
support the Vietnam War.

You have money draining off to
support the Vietnam War.
We can't acknowledge that we're

support the Vietnam War.
We can't acknowledge that we're
really fighting the war, and so

We can't acknowledge that we're
really fighting the war, and so
we do deficit spending.

Really fighting the war, and so
we do deficit spending.
It's a terrible blow,

we do deficit spending.
It's a terrible blow,
ultimately, economically.

It's a terrible blow,
ultimately, economically.
And all those things are

ultimately, economically.
And all those things are
happening not only in the

And all those things are
happening not only in the
country, but right in the city.

And so you have a very quick
shift in the vision of New York

shift in the vision of New York
from a city with promise to a

from a city with promise to a
city of devastation, of poor

city of devastation, of poor
people, of complaining people,

people, of complaining people,
of crumbling buildings, of

of crumbling buildings, of
inadequate services.
Meanwhile, the suburbs are

Meanwhile, the suburbs are
booming.
People are moving elsewhere,

booming.
People are moving elsewhere,
where labor costs might be less

People are moving elsewhere,
where labor costs might be less
expensive, where opportunities

where labor costs might be less
expensive, where opportunities
are different.

Expensive, where opportunities
are different.
And what you're left with then

are different.
And what you're left with then
is a city that nobody wants to

And what you're left with then
is a city that nobody wants to
support.

Is a city that nobody wants to
support.
The 1960s and 1970s

support.
The 1960s and 1970s
were not good for American

The 1960s and 1970s
were not good for American
cities.

Were not good for American
cities.
This was a time when everybody

cities.
This was a time when everybody
thought the suburbs were the

This was a time when everybody
thought the suburbs were the
wave of the future.

Thought the suburbs were the
wave of the future.
It was just a matter of time

wave of the future.
It was just a matter of time
until, really, all cities and

It was just a matter of time
until, really, all cities and
all older neighborhoods were

until, really, all cities and
all older neighborhoods were
abandoned in favor of the car,

all older neighborhoods were
abandoned in favor of the car,
in favor of the corporate office

abandoned in favor of the car,
in favor of the corporate office
park, in favor of the suburban

in favor of the corporate office
park, in favor of the suburban
residential subdivision.

Park, in favor of the suburban
residential subdivision.
It was a time of fiscal crisis

residential subdivision.
It was a time of fiscal crisis
as the country essentially spent

It was a time of fiscal crisis
as the country essentially spent
its money on defense or Vietnam,

as the country essentially spent
its money on defense or Vietnam,
as it sucked money out of

its money on defense or Vietnam,
as it sucked money out of
cities.

As it sucked money out of
cities.
So that by the early 1970s, New

cities.
So that by the early 1970s, New
York City was in an amazing

So that by the early 1970s, New
York City was in an amazing
financial crisis brought on by

York City was in an amazing
financial crisis brought on by
borrowing too much money and

financial crisis brought on by
borrowing too much money and
perhaps living beyond its means.

Borrowing too much money and
perhaps living beyond its means.
But also it no longer had the

perhaps living beyond its means.
But also it no longer had the
means.

But also it no longer had the
means.
You can't even explain

means.
You can't even explain
the layoffs in this city.

You can't even explain
the layoffs in this city.
Schools were

the layoffs in this city.
Schools were
beginning to decline.

Schools were
beginning to decline.
The crime rate was beginning an

beginning to decline.
The crime rate was beginning an
explosive increase in New York

The crime rate was beginning an
explosive increase in New York
City as in other places.

Explosive increase in New York
City as in other places.
The Bronx was burning.

City as in other places.
The Bronx was burning.
Every night there were fires

The Bronx was burning.
Every night there were fires
that you could see, and so there

Every night there were fires
that you could see, and so there
was an orange glow.

That you could see, and so there
was an orange glow.
We heard about Fort Apache,

was an orange glow.
We heard about Fort Apache,
these dangerous police

We heard about Fort Apache,
these dangerous police
precincts.

These dangerous police
precincts.
By 1970, the city

precincts.
By 1970, the city
that had emerged from the Second

By 1970, the city
that had emerged from the Second
World War as the most powerful

that had emerged from the Second
World War as the most powerful
metropolis on earth had begun to

World War as the most powerful
metropolis on earth had begun to
spiral downward into an abyss of

metropolis on earth had begun to
spiral downward into an abyss of
urban chaos and despair almost

spiral downward into an abyss of
urban chaos and despair almost
without precedent in American

urban chaos and despair almost
without precedent in American
urban history.

Without precedent in American
urban history.
Well, the worst

urban history.
Well, the worst
feature of New York in that

Well, the worst
feature of New York in that
period, for me, were the

feature of New York in that
period, for me, were the
neighborhoods that were falling

period, for me, were the
neighborhoods that were falling
apart.

Neighborhoods that were falling
apart.
A lot of the South Bronx in the

apart.
A lot of the South Bronx in the
course of the '70s was burnt

A lot of the South Bronx in the
course of the '70s was burnt
down.

Course of the '70s was burnt
down.
The biggest industry in the

down.
The biggest industry in the
Bronx became arson.

The biggest industry in the
Bronx became arson.
In the 1976 World Series, while

Bronx became arson.
In the 1976 World Series, while
there was a night game at Yankee

In the 1976 World Series, while
there was a night game at Yankee
Stadium, the Goodyear Blimp

there was a night game at Yankee
Stadium, the Goodyear Blimp
showed about a mile away a

Stadium, the Goodyear Blimp
showed about a mile away a
building was burning down.

Showed about a mile away a
building was burning down.
And Howard Cosell said, "What's

building was burning down.
And Howard Cosell said, "What's
wrong with these people that

And Howard Cosell said, "What's
wrong with these people that
they burn down their houses?"

wrong with these people that
they burn down their houses?"
Some people began to suggest

they burn down their houses?"
Some people began to suggest
that it had to do with the

Some people began to suggest
that it had to do with the
character of the landlords and

that it had to do with the
character of the landlords and
the fact that you could collect

character of the landlords and
the fact that you could collect
more money on insurance than you

the fact that you could collect
more money on insurance than you
could collect in rent on

more money on insurance than you
could collect in rent on
buildings that were old and

could collect in rent on
buildings that were old and
needed constant refinancing and,

buildings that were old and
needed constant refinancing and,
ironically, that were redlined,

needed constant refinancing and,
ironically, that were redlined,
because the whole Bronx was

ironically, that were redlined,
because the whole Bronx was
redlined in this period.

Because the whole Bronx was
redlined in this period.
So you couldn't fix up the

redlined in this period.
So you couldn't fix up the
building, but you could fix it

So you couldn't fix up the
building, but you could fix it
down.

Building, but you could fix it
down.
By 1973, more than

down.
By 1973, more than
2,000 city blocks had been

By 1973, more than
2,000 city blocks had been
burned to the ground; more than

2,000 city blocks had been
burned to the ground; more than
43,000 apartments had been

burned to the ground; more than
43,000 apartments had been
destroyed; and the South Bronx

43,000 apartments had been
destroyed; and the South Bronx
had become a symbol around the

destroyed; and the South Bronx
had become a symbol around the
world of urban decline.

There was this
brief period, in the 1970s

brief period, in the 1970s
especially, where it seemed like

especially, where it seemed like
New York was really going to be

New York was really going to be
further and further off the

further and further off the
chart.
It really did feel like

It really did feel like
neighborhoods were being
sequentially abandoned by their

neighborhoods were being
sequentially abandoned by their
owners.

Sequentially abandoned by their
owners.
You could see it in the Lower

owners.
You could see it in the Lower
East Side.

You could see it in the Lower
East Side.
Landlord arson was rampant

East Side.
Landlord arson was rampant
because that was the only way

Landlord arson was rampant
because that was the only way
they'd ever be able to make

because that was the only way
they'd ever be able to make
money.

They'd ever be able to make
money.
They couldn't get people to move

money.
They couldn't get people to move
into these places, so they might

They couldn't get people to move
into these places, so they might
as well burn them down.

Into these places, so they might
as well burn them down.
And it really seemed like this

as well burn them down.
And it really seemed like this
was just going to happen all

And it really seemed like this
was just going to happen all
throughout the island.

Was just going to happen all
throughout the island.
For the city

throughout the island.
For the city
itself, there was one final

For the city
itself, there was one final
chapter to come in the long

itself, there was one final
chapter to come in the long
downward spiral begun three

chapter to come in the long
downward spiral begun three
decades before.

Downward spiral begun three
decades before.
All through John Lindsay's

decades before.
All through John Lindsay's
second term, as tax revenues

All through John Lindsay's
second term, as tax revenues
faltered and expenses soared,

second term, as tax revenues
faltered and expenses soared,
the beleaguered mayor had

faltered and expenses soared,
the beleaguered mayor had
refused to cut the crucial

the beleaguered mayor had
refused to cut the crucial
public programs that had been

refused to cut the crucial
public programs that had been
New York's hallmark since the

public programs that had been
New York's hallmark since the
days of the depression, using

New York's hallmark since the
days of the depression, using
hundreds of millions of dollars

days of the depression, using
hundreds of millions of dollars
earmarked for long-term capital

hundreds of millions of dollars
earmarked for long-term capital
projects to cover the mounting

earmarked for long-term capital
projects to cover the mounting
shortfall, borrowing hundreds of

projects to cover the mounting
shortfall, borrowing hundreds of
millions more to make up for

shortfall, borrowing hundreds of
millions more to make up for
that, and rolling over the ever

millions more to make up for
that, and rolling over the ever
mounting debt from one year to

that, and rolling over the ever
mounting debt from one year to
another.

Mounting debt from one year to
another.
Very bad

another.
Very bad
accounting practices.

Very bad
accounting practices.
The city was, in effect,

accounting practices.
The city was, in effect,
borrowing to buy groceries.

The city was, in effect,
borrowing to buy groceries.
People and political

borrowing to buy groceries.
People and political
institutions should borrow money

People and political
institutions should borrow money
for capital reasons.

We were... the city was
borrowing money in order to meet

borrowing money in order to meet
its current bills, and you can't

its current bills, and you can't
do that forever.
I think this

I think this
culminated in the fiscal crisis
in the early 1970s because it

culminated in the fiscal crisis
in the early 1970s because it
kind of brought it all together.

In the early 1970s because it
kind of brought it all together.
Sure, it was partly because the

kind of brought it all together.
Sure, it was partly because the
city was living beyond its means

Sure, it was partly because the
city was living beyond its means
and trying to maintain this kind

city was living beyond its means
and trying to maintain this kind
of old New Deal attitude of

and trying to maintain this kind
of old New Deal attitude of
building public hospitals and

of old New Deal attitude of
building public hospitals and
public colleges and generous

building public hospitals and
public colleges and generous
public-welfare benefits, even

public colleges and generous
public-welfare benefits, even
when the rest of the nation

public-welfare benefits, even
when the rest of the nation
wasn't following behind.

When the rest of the nation
wasn't following behind.
By 1975, more than

wasn't following behind.
By 1975, more than
$2 billion a year were going

By 1975, more than
$2 billion a year were going
simply to service New York's

$2 billion a year were going
simply to service New York's
enormous $11 billion debt, which

simply to service New York's
enormous $11 billion debt, which
was increasing now at an

enormous $11 billion debt, which
was increasing now at an
alarming rate with each passing

was increasing now at an
alarming rate with each passing
month and threatening to capsize

alarming rate with each passing
month and threatening to capsize
the new administration of John

month and threatening to capsize
the new administration of John
Lindsay's successor, Mayor Abe

the new administration of John
Lindsay's successor, Mayor Abe
Beame.

Lindsay's successor, Mayor Abe
Beame.
They're going to

Beame.
They're going to
want to know if New York City is

They're going to
want to know if New York City is
going down the drain.

Want to know if New York City is
going down the drain.
Now, is it safe to say...

going down the drain.
Now, is it safe to say...
New York City is not

Now, is it safe to say...
New York City is not
going down the drain.

New York City is not
going down the drain.
That October, the

going down the drain.
That October, the
apocalyptic reckoning city

That October, the
apocalyptic reckoning city
leaders had been attempting to

apocalyptic reckoning city
leaders had been attempting to
stave off for nearly ten years

leaders had been attempting to
stave off for nearly ten years
finally came due when the

stave off for nearly ten years
finally came due when the
consortium of banks that had

finally came due when the
consortium of banks that had
freely lent the city billions of

consortium of banks that had
freely lent the city billions of
dollars over the previous decade

freely lent the city billions of
dollars over the previous decade
abruptly suspended New York's

dollars over the previous decade
abruptly suspended New York's
borrowing privileges until the

abruptly suspended New York's
borrowing privileges until the
city had put its financial house

borrowing privileges until the
city had put its financial house
in order.

City had put its financial house
in order.
Within days, the city was facing

in order.
Within days, the city was facing
a fiscal crisis unlike any since

Within days, the city was facing
a fiscal crisis unlike any since
the darkest hours of the

a fiscal crisis unlike any since
the darkest hours of the
depression.

The banks said,
looking at how much money New

looking at how much money New
York City owed, "We're not going

York City owed, "We're not going
to lend you anymore money."

to lend you anymore money."
And nobody believed they would

And nobody believed they would
ever do that.

Ever do that.
And they just shut the window.
The banks

The banks
essentially said to New York,
"Give us $6 billion back now,

essentially said to New York,
"Give us $6 billion back now,
please."

And New York City couldn't do
that.

That.
So in a sense, New York City was

So in a sense, New York City was
bankrupt or virtually bankrupt.

Bankrupt or virtually bankrupt.
And the fiscal crisis is the

And the fiscal crisis is the
process of getting $6 billion to

process of getting $6 billion to
pay back the banks the money

pay back the banks the money
that they once loaned to the

that they once loaned to the
city.
With the prospect

With the prospect
of bankruptcy staring them in
the face, city leaders turned in

of bankruptcy staring them in
the face, city leaders turned in
desperation to the one source

the face, city leaders turned in
desperation to the one source
that could possibly save them,

desperation to the one source
that could possibly save them,
the federal government,

that could possibly save them,
the federal government,
submitting a request for more

the federal government,
submitting a request for more
than $2 billion in emergency

submitting a request for more
than $2 billion in emergency
loan guarantees... the city's

than $2 billion in emergency
loan guarantees... the city's
last hope of avoiding complete

loan guarantees... the city's
last hope of avoiding complete
financial ruin.

Last hope of avoiding complete
financial ruin.
President Gerald Ford's stunning

financial ruin.
President Gerald Ford's stunning
response came in a speech on

President Gerald Ford's stunning
response came in a speech on
October 29th at the National

response came in a speech on
October 29th at the National
Press Club in Washington.

October 29th at the National
Press Club in Washington.
Responsibility

Press Club in Washington.
Responsibility
for New York City's financial

Responsibility
for New York City's financial
problems is being left on the

for New York City's financial
problems is being left on the
front doorstep of the federal

problems is being left on the
front doorstep of the federal
government, unwanted and

front doorstep of the federal
government, unwanted and
abandoned by its real parents.

Government, unwanted and
abandoned by its real parents.
And when New York City now asks

abandoned by its real parents.
And when New York City now asks
the rest of the country to

And when New York City now asks
the rest of the country to
guarantee its bills, it can be

the rest of the country to
guarantee its bills, it can be
no surprise that many other

guarantee its bills, it can be
no surprise that many other
Americans ask, "Why?"

no surprise that many other
Americans ask, "Why?"
Municipal default,

Americans ask, "Why?"
Municipal default,
Ford concluded, would be a good

Municipal default,
Ford concluded, would be a good
thing for New York, forcing the

Ford concluded, would be a good
thing for New York, forcing the
city to curtail its

thing for New York, forcing the
city to curtail its
traditionally spendthrift ways.

City to curtail its
traditionally spendthrift ways.
No federal loan guarantees would

traditionally spendthrift ways.
No federal loan guarantees would
be forthcoming.

No federal loan guarantees would
be forthcoming.
The next day, a towering black

be forthcoming.
The next day, a towering black
headline loomed ominously from

The next day, a towering black
headline loomed ominously from
the front page of the Daily

headline loomed ominously from
the front page of the Daily
News... "Ford to City: Drop

the front page of the Daily
News... "Ford to City: Drop
Dead."

News... "Ford to City: Drop
Dead."
What's astonishing

Dead."
What's astonishing
is that the president of the

What's astonishing
is that the president of the
United States could essentially

is that the president of the
United States could essentially
tell the greatest city in the

United States could essentially
tell the greatest city in the
Western world to drop dead.

Tell the greatest city in the
Western world to drop dead.
Of course, he didn't say it

Western world to drop dead.
Of course, he didn't say it
exactly.

Of course, he didn't say it
exactly.
But remember those Daily

exactly.
But remember those Daily
News headlines... "Drop Dead New

But remember those Daily
News headlines... "Drop Dead New
York City"?

News headlines... "Drop Dead New
York City"?
Tells you just how far, in a

York City"?
Tells you just how far, in a
sense, the city had sunk there.

Tells you just how far, in a
sense, the city had sunk there.
A city that had sent

sense, the city had sunk there.
A city that had sent
so many successful people out

A city that had sent
so many successful people out
into the world should have had

so many successful people out
into the world should have had
more friends by the mid-70s.

Into the world should have had
more friends by the mid-70s.
It was surrounded by people who

more friends by the mid-70s.
It was surrounded by people who
did not wish the place well.

It was surrounded by people who
did not wish the place well.
And interestingly, people whose

did not wish the place well.
And interestingly, people whose
own life stories passed through

And interestingly, people whose
own life stories passed through
the five boroughs are decamped

own life stories passed through
the five boroughs are decamped
in Jersey, in Westchester, and

the five boroughs are decamped
in Jersey, in Westchester, and
out on the island.

In Jersey, in Westchester, and
out on the island.
And when that Daily News

out on the island.
And when that Daily News
headline comes out... "Ford to

And when that Daily News
headline comes out... "Ford to
City: Drop Dead"... instead of

headline comes out... "Ford to
City: Drop Dead"... instead of
recoiling in horror, they're

City: Drop Dead"... instead of
recoiling in horror, they're
saying, "Yeah, drop dead.

Recoiling in horror, they're
saying, "Yeah, drop dead.
We think you should drop dead,

saying, "Yeah, drop dead.
We think you should drop dead,
too."

We think you should drop dead,
too."
It was a terrible, terrible

too."
It was a terrible, terrible
time.

It was a terrible, terrible
time.
It really was.

Time.
It really was.
Instead of looking at this as a

It really was.
Instead of looking at this as a
treasure of the American scene,

Instead of looking at this as a
treasure of the American scene,
New York was seen as

treasure of the American scene,
New York was seen as
representing almost everything

New York was seen as
representing almost everything
that was worst about postwar

representing almost everything
that was worst about postwar
America.

That was worst about postwar
America.
In its blunt and

America.
In its blunt and
homely way, the headline in the

In its blunt and
homely way, the headline in the
Daily News captured as nothing

homely way, the headline in the
Daily News captured as nothing
else had the basic assumption

Daily News captured as nothing
else had the basic assumption
behind President Ford's

else had the basic assumption
behind President Ford's
remarks... an assumption that had

behind President Ford's
remarks... an assumption that had
been growing more and more

remarks... an assumption that had
been growing more and more
commonplace among Americans for

been growing more and more
commonplace among Americans for
years as the city's social and

commonplace among Americans for
years as the city's social and
economic problems multiplied.

Years as the city's social and
economic problems multiplied.
New York, like many of the

economic problems multiplied.
New York, like many of the
nation's older cities, was

New York, like many of the
nation's older cities, was
plummeting into the abyss.

Nation's older cities, was
plummeting into the abyss.
New York, America's

plummeting into the abyss.
New York, America's
extraordinary, unwieldy

New York, America's
extraordinary, unwieldy
experiment in capitalism and

extraordinary, unwieldy
experiment in capitalism and
democracy, hope and greed, had

experiment in capitalism and
democracy, hope and greed, had
failed.

Democracy, hope and greed, had
failed.
New York... city of cities,

failed.
New York... city of cities,
capital of capitalism, gateway

New York... city of cities,
capital of capitalism, gateway
to America... was going to die

capital of capitalism, gateway
to America... was going to die
and good riddance.

To America... was going to die
and good riddance.
Grace Paley, one of

and good riddance.
Grace Paley, one of
the great New York writers, has

Grace Paley, one of
the great New York writers, has
a story written early-'70s

the great New York writers, has
a story written early-'70s
South Bronx.

A story written early-'70s
South Bronx.
And one of the characters, who's

South Bronx.
And one of the characters, who's
like a community organizer

And one of the characters, who's
like a community organizer
there, says, "The buildings are

like a community organizer
there, says, "The buildings are
burning down on one side of the

there, says, "The buildings are
burning down on one side of the
street, and the kids are trying

burning down on one side of the
street, and the kids are trying
to put something together on the

street, and the kids are trying
to put something together on the
other."

to put something together on the
other."
And this could be a parable of

other."
And this could be a parable of
one of the great achievements of

And this could be a parable of
one of the great achievements of
that period from a lot of the

one of the great achievements of
that period from a lot of the
neighborhoods that were most

that period from a lot of the
neighborhoods that were most
devastated in New York.

Neighborhoods that were most
devastated in New York.
The earliest form in which most

devastated in New York.
The earliest form in which most
people who weren't part of that

The earliest form in which most
people who weren't part of that
neighborhood saw it were the

people who weren't part of that
neighborhood saw it were the
graffiti that appeared on the

neighborhood saw it were the
graffiti that appeared on the
subways in the '70s.

Graffiti that appeared on the
subways in the '70s.
And this was on a very rickety,

subways in the '70s.
And this was on a very rickety,
decaying generation of gray

And this was on a very rickety,
decaying generation of gray
trains, they painted enormously

decaying generation of gray
trains, they painted enormously
exuberant, colored names and

trains, they painted enormously
exuberant, colored names and
reliefs and mottoes.

Exuberant, colored names and
reliefs and mottoes.
And you can see many films now:

reliefs and mottoes.
And you can see many films now:
a gray day, a gray neighborhood,

And you can see many films now:
a gray day, a gray neighborhood,
an El train.

A gray day, a gray neighborhood,
an El train.
And suddenly, the El train, it's

an El train.
And suddenly, the El train, it's
like a rainbow!

And suddenly, the El train, it's
like a rainbow!
And it's thrilling.

Like a rainbow!
And it's thrilling.
The next incarnation was rap.

And it's thrilling.
The next incarnation was rap.
The earliest form that people

The next incarnation was rap.
The earliest form that people
saw would be there would be one

The earliest form that people
saw would be there would be one
kid rapping with small speakers

saw would be there would be one
kid rapping with small speakers
and a drum track in the subway,

kid rapping with small speakers
and a drum track in the subway,
you know, with a hat open for

and a drum track in the subway,
you know, with a hat open for
money.

You know, with a hat open for
money.
And, you know, these are

money.
And, you know, these are
parables of a city that's being

And, you know, these are
parables of a city that's being
ruined, that's being destroyed,

parables of a city that's being
ruined, that's being destroyed,
and that's saying, "We can rise

ruined, that's being destroyed,
and that's saying, "We can rise
again.

And that's saying, "We can rise
again.
We come from ruins, but we're

again.
We come from ruins, but we're
not ruined."

We come from ruins, but we're
not ruined."
And, I mean, in 15 years, it's

not ruined."
And, I mean, in 15 years, it's
become the basic form of world

And, I mean, in 15 years, it's
become the basic form of world
music.

Become the basic form of world
music.
So it's a thrill, but it's

music.
So it's a thrill, but it's
important to understand that it

So it's a thrill, but it's
important to understand that it
came from totally burnt-out,

important to understand that it
came from totally burnt-out,
ruined districts, and that's

came from totally burnt-out,
ruined districts, and that's
where it was born.

Ruined districts, and that's
where it was born.
And that it was born out of this

where it was born.
And that it was born out of this
suffering and misery, and that a

And that it was born out of this
suffering and misery, and that a
lot of the creativity that New

suffering and misery, and that a
lot of the creativity that New
York has always had has come

lot of the creativity that New
York has always had has come
from the cellars, from the

York has always had has come
from the cellars, from the
ruins, from how the other half

from the cellars, from the
ruins, from how the other half
lives.

Ruins, from how the other half
lives.
So an important part of sharing

lives.
So an important part of sharing
space and living city life is

So an important part of sharing
space and living city life is
being able to live through the

space and living city life is
being able to live through the
ways in which the city itself is

being able to live through the
ways in which the city itself is
torn down and is consumed and is

ways in which the city itself is
torn down and is consumed and is
destroyed, but also consumes

torn down and is consumed and is
destroyed, but also consumes
itself.

Destroyed, but also consumes
itself.
You know, if you can do that,

itself.
You know, if you can do that,
you can become more human and

You know, if you can do that,
you can become more human and
more alive than you've been

you can become more human and
more alive than you've been
before.

More alive than you've been
before.
In the end, of

before.
In the end, of
course, the city didn't die.

In the end, of
course, the city didn't die.
Despite all the destruction and

course, the city didn't die.
Despite all the destruction and
heartbreak of the postwar

Despite all the destruction and
heartbreak of the postwar
years; despite the demise of

heartbreak of the postwar
years; despite the demise of
neighborhoods and the loss of

years; despite the demise of
neighborhoods and the loss of
industry and the bitter clash of

neighborhoods and the loss of
industry and the bitter clash of
races and classes; despite

industry and the bitter clash of
races and classes; despite
everything, as it had so many

races and classes; despite
everything, as it had so many
times in the past, the city, to

everything, as it had so many
times in the past, the city, to
almost everyone's surprise, got

times in the past, the city, to
almost everyone's surprise, got
back up off the floor and began

almost everyone's surprise, got
back up off the floor and began
to revive.

Back up off the floor and began
to revive.
Less than a month after refusing

to revive.
Less than a month after refusing
to come to the city's aid,

Less than a month after refusing
to come to the city's aid,
President Ford reversed himself

to come to the city's aid,
President Ford reversed himself
and grudgingly agreed to approve

President Ford reversed himself
and grudgingly agreed to approve
the city's request for loan

and grudgingly agreed to approve
the city's request for loan
guarantees, warned by advisors

the city's request for loan
guarantees, warned by advisors
that New York's demise might

guarantees, warned by advisors
that New York's demise might
trigger a catastrophic domino

that New York's demise might
trigger a catastrophic domino
effect of fiscal default that

trigger a catastrophic domino
effect of fiscal default that
would bring down one city after

effect of fiscal default that
would bring down one city after
another across the country.

Would bring down one city after
another across the country.
With time to put its finances in

another across the country.
With time to put its finances in
order, city officials moved with

With time to put its finances in
order, city officials moved with
startling dispatch, cutting

order, city officials moved with
startling dispatch, cutting
services, repaying the city's

startling dispatch, cutting
services, repaying the city's
outstanding loans, and balancing

services, repaying the city's
outstanding loans, and balancing
the city budget by 1981, a full

outstanding loans, and balancing
the city budget by 1981, a full
year ahead of schedule.

The city budget by 1981, a full
year ahead of schedule.
In the end, the U.S. Treasury

year ahead of schedule.
In the end, the U.S. Treasury
made millions of dollars out of

In the end, the U.S. Treasury
made millions of dollars out of
its arrangement with New York.

Made millions of dollars out of
its arrangement with New York.
I think New York

its arrangement with New York.
I think New York
became the experiment ground for

I think New York
became the experiment ground for
a new national program of

became the experiment ground for
a new national program of
austerity to check the power of

a new national program of
austerity to check the power of
labor and to reverse some of the

austerity to check the power of
labor and to reverse some of the
trends of New Deal liberalism.

Labor and to reverse some of the
trends of New Deal liberalism.
It was put on display, and it

trends of New Deal liberalism.
It was put on display, and it
was created as a kind of

It was put on display, and it
was created as a kind of
negative-object example... "This

was created as a kind of
negative-object example... "This
is liberalism gone amuck.

Negative-object example... "This
is liberalism gone amuck.
This is a kind of degeneration,

is liberalism gone amuck.
This is a kind of degeneration,
a kind of moral degeneracy that

This is a kind of degeneration,
a kind of moral degeneracy that
can only be solved by the old-

a kind of moral degeneracy that
can only be solved by the old-
fashioned medicine of fiscal

can only be solved by the old-
fashioned medicine of fiscal
austerity."

fashioned medicine of fiscal
austerity."
And its a program that, in a

austerity."
And its a program that, in a
sense, was then successful in

And its a program that, in a
sense, was then successful in
New York and followed in the

sense, was then successful in
New York and followed in the
1980s in the country at large.

New York and followed in the
1980s in the country at large.
The summer of my

1980s in the country at large.
The summer of my
election, I went for a walk on

The summer of my
election, I went for a walk on
the Brighton Beach boardwalk.

Election, I went for a walk on
the Brighton Beach boardwalk.
This was August.

The Brighton Beach boardwalk.
This was August.
Suddenly, I heard a woman

This was August.
Suddenly, I heard a woman
calling, "Mayor, Mayor."

Suddenly, I heard a woman
calling, "Mayor, Mayor."
And I looked down the boardwalk,

calling, "Mayor, Mayor."
And I looked down the boardwalk,
and there was this elderly lady.

And I looked down the boardwalk,
and there was this elderly lady.
She must have been in her late

and there was this elderly lady.
She must have been in her late
70s.

She must have been in her late
70s.
And she came towards me.

70s.
And she came towards me.
She took my hand and she looked

And she came towards me.
She took my hand and she looked
at me, and she said, "Mayor,

She took my hand and she looked
at me, and she said, "Mayor,
make it like it was."

at me, and she said, "Mayor,
make it like it was."
And I must tell you, I still

make it like it was."
And I must tell you, I still
have goose pimples.

And I must tell you, I still
have goose pimples.
And I thought to myself as she

have goose pimples.
And I thought to myself as she
said it, "Madame, it never was

And I thought to myself as she
said it, "Madame, it never was
the way you think it was, but

said it, "Madame, it never was
the way you think it was, but
I'll try."

the way you think it was, but
I'll try."
In the years to

I'll try."
In the years to
come, despite the terrible

In the years to
come, despite the terrible
hardships that continued to be

come, despite the terrible
hardships that continued to be
suffered by many of New York's

hardships that continued to be
suffered by many of New York's
most vulnerable citizens, the

suffered by many of New York's
most vulnerable citizens, the
city would not only survive but

most vulnerable citizens, the
city would not only survive but
begin to thrive and flourish

city would not only survive but
begin to thrive and flourish
again, in large measure because

begin to thrive and flourish
again, in large measure because
the urban qualities that had

again, in large measure because
the urban qualities that had
defined the city since the time

the urban qualities that had
defined the city since the time
of the Dutch began to reassert

defined the city since the time
of the Dutch began to reassert
themselves, not as problems to

of the Dutch began to reassert
themselves, not as problems to
be solved, but as crucial urban

themselves, not as problems to
be solved, but as crucial urban
values to be celebrated,

be solved, but as crucial urban
values to be celebrated,
nurtured, and sustained.

Values to be celebrated,
nurtured, and sustained.
What I think

nurtured, and sustained.
What I think
accounts for New York's success

What I think
accounts for New York's success
in reinventing itself at the end

accounts for New York's success
in reinventing itself at the end
of the 20th century are the very

in reinventing itself at the end
of the 20th century are the very
strengths that the Dutch, the

of the 20th century are the very
strengths that the Dutch, the
first little settlement in the

strengths that the Dutch, the
first little settlement in the
17th century, made visible... the

first little settlement in the
17th century, made visible... the
heterogeneity of the city, so

17th century, made visible... the
heterogeneity of the city, so
that everyone was welcome.

Heterogeneity of the city, so
that everyone was welcome.
Maybe everyone would not be

that everyone was welcome.
Maybe everyone would not be
loved... "We're not going to be

Maybe everyone would not be
loved... "We're not going to be
pleasant.

Loved... "We're not going to be
pleasant.
We're not going to hug you.

Pleasant.
We're not going to hug you.
We're not going to even say

We're not going to hug you.
We're not going to even say
'Good morning' every time we see

We're not going to even say
'Good morning' every time we see
you.

'Good morning' every time we see
you.
But in the end, opportunity is

you.
But in the end, opportunity is
here."

But in the end, opportunity is
here."
People knew it, so we have these

here."
People knew it, so we have these
incredible immigration flows

People knew it, so we have these
incredible immigration flows
which accelerate after the mid-

incredible immigration flows
which accelerate after the mid-
1960s with the new immigration

which accelerate after the mid-
1960s with the new immigration
laws.

1960s with the new immigration
laws.
Secondly, we have the same kind

laws.
Secondly, we have the same kind
of entrepreneurial spirit that

Secondly, we have the same kind
of entrepreneurial spirit that
the Dutch West India Company had

of entrepreneurial spirit that
the Dutch West India Company had
established in 1624 that has

the Dutch West India Company had
established in 1624 that has
kind of run through New York all

established in 1624 that has
kind of run through New York all
the time.

Kind of run through New York all
the time.
Third, I think it's the density

the time.
Third, I think it's the density
and concentration of New York.

Third, I think it's the density
and concentration of New York.
There is something about the

and concentration of New York.
There is something about the
mood of the place that's

There is something about the
mood of the place that's
directed toward achievement and

mood of the place that's
directed toward achievement and
getting something done.

Directed toward achievement and
getting something done.
Fourthly, I think it's always

getting something done.
Fourthly, I think it's always
been a kind of an openness to

Fourthly, I think it's always
been a kind of an openness to
change.

Been a kind of an openness to
change.
New York City was always willing

change.
New York City was always willing
to go with what worked, to find

New York City was always willing
to go with what worked, to find
the balance, to reach a new

to go with what worked, to find
the balance, to reach a new
understanding.

The balance, to reach a new
understanding.
By the 1980s, as

understanding.
By the 1980s, as
the city's role within the

By the 1980s, as
the city's role within the
widening gyre of an increasingly

the city's role within the
widening gyre of an increasingly
global economy continued to

widening gyre of an increasingly
global economy continued to
shift and change, the relentless

global economy continued to
shift and change, the relentless
commercial energy that had

shift and change, the relentless
commercial energy that had
characterized New York for

commercial energy that had
characterized New York for
nearly 400 years began to return

characterized New York for
nearly 400 years began to return
with a frantic intensity not

nearly 400 years began to return
with a frantic intensity not
seen on Wall Street since the

with a frantic intensity not
seen on Wall Street since the
days of the Roaring '20s.

Seen on Wall Street since the
days of the Roaring '20s.
By the 1990s, though the days of

days of the Roaring '20s.
By the 1990s, though the days of
New York's blue-collar glory

By the 1990s, though the days of
New York's blue-collar glory
were over, most of the hundreds

New York's blue-collar glory
were over, most of the hundreds
of thousands of jobs that had

were over, most of the hundreds
of thousands of jobs that had
been lost had been replaced as

of thousands of jobs that had
been lost had been replaced as
thousands of new companies and

been lost had been replaced as
thousands of new companies and
small businesses streamed back

thousands of new companies and
small businesses streamed back
into New York, eager to draw on

small businesses streamed back
into New York, eager to draw on
the unique concentration of

into New York, eager to draw on
the unique concentration of
talent and resources gathered

the unique concentration of
talent and resources gathered
there and attracted by the very

talent and resources gathered
there and attracted by the very
density that had once driven

there and attracted by the very
density that had once driven
businesses away.

Density that had once driven
businesses away.
Cities bring a lot of

businesses away.
Cities bring a lot of
people together.

Cities bring a lot of
people together.
Some people feel too many

people together.
Some people feel too many
people, too big crowds, but

Some people feel too many
people, too big crowds, but
there's a great commandment of

people, too big crowds, but
there's a great commandment of
urban life that can be a

there's a great commandment of
urban life that can be a
tremendous source of happiness:

urban life that can be a
tremendous source of happiness:
"Thou shalt share space."

tremendous source of happiness:
"Thou shalt share space."
I mean, cities, in many ways,

"Thou shalt share space."
I mean, cities, in many ways,
are expensive and inconvenient

I mean, cities, in many ways,
are expensive and inconvenient
and noisy and dirty, but the

are expensive and inconvenient
and noisy and dirty, but the
wonderful thing about them is

and noisy and dirty, but the
wonderful thing about them is
the way they bring people

wonderful thing about them is
the way they bring people
together.

The way they bring people
together.
You design cities that don't let

together.
You design cities that don't let
people get together, you're

You design cities that don't let
people get together, you're
losing what may be most special

people get together, you're
losing what may be most special
and beautiful about them, and

losing what may be most special
and beautiful about them, and
then, of course, make people

and beautiful about them, and
then, of course, make people
think, "Why bother to live in a

then, of course, make people
think, "Why bother to live in a
city at all, if we don't even

think, "Why bother to live in a
city at all, if we don't even
have what's most special about

city at all, if we don't even
have what's most special about
the city?"

have what's most special about
the city?"
By the turn of the

the city?"
By the turn of the
century, the greatest and most

By the turn of the
century, the greatest and most
moving sign of the city's

century, the greatest and most
moving sign of the city's
miraculous revival could be seen

moving sign of the city's
miraculous revival could be seen
on the city streets themselves,

miraculous revival could be seen
on the city streets themselves,
which, within ten years of the

on the city streets themselves,
which, within ten years of the
end of the fiscal crisis, were

which, within ten years of the
end of the fiscal crisis, were
filled with hundreds of

end of the fiscal crisis, were
filled with hundreds of
thousands of newcomers from

filled with hundreds of
thousands of newcomers from
around the world who had been

thousands of newcomers from
around the world who had been
pouring into New York since the

around the world who had been
pouring into New York since the
mid-1960s, when the federal

pouring into New York since the
mid-1960s, when the federal
government finally reopened the

mid-1960s, when the federal
government finally reopened the
great human gateway Emma Lazarus

government finally reopened the
great human gateway Emma Lazarus
had called "the golden door."

great human gateway Emma Lazarus
had called "the golden door."
I mean, New York

had called "the golden door."
I mean, New York
became the kind of port that it

I mean, New York
became the kind of port that it
had been at the beginning of the

became the kind of port that it
had been at the beginning of the
20th century again.

Had been at the beginning of the
20th century again.
And people began coming in

20th century again.
And people began coming in
enormous numbers, from East

And people began coming in
enormous numbers, from East
Asia, from Latin America, from

enormous numbers, from East
Asia, from Latin America, from
eastern Europe, colonizing

Asia, from Latin America, from
eastern Europe, colonizing
neighborhoods that many people

eastern Europe, colonizing
neighborhoods that many people
considered abandoned.

Neighborhoods that many people
considered abandoned.
The Census Department says that

considered abandoned.
The Census Department says that
now something like 43% of New

The Census Department says that
now something like 43% of New
Yorkers, you know, have been

now something like 43% of New
Yorkers, you know, have been
born outside the U.S.A.

Yorkers, you know, have been
born outside the U.S.A.
And they said that there haven't

born outside the U.S.A.
And they said that there haven't
been comparable figures since

And they said that there haven't
been comparable figures since
1910.

Been comparable figures since
1910.
By the end of the

1910.
By the end of the
20th century, the fiscal crisis

By the end of the
20th century, the fiscal crisis
had dwindled to a memory, and

20th century, the fiscal crisis
had dwindled to a memory, and
New York seemed to have

had dwindled to a memory, and
New York seemed to have
reinvented itself once again.

New York seemed to have
reinvented itself once again.
The epic transformations of the

reinvented itself once again.
The epic transformations of the
previous half century had left

The epic transformations of the
previous half century had left
the city with a host of

previous half century had left
the city with a host of
intractable problems, including

the city with a host of
intractable problems, including
failing schools, a crumbling

intractable problems, including
failing schools, a crumbling
infrastructure, and immense

failing schools, a crumbling
infrastructure, and immense
disparities of income, race, and

infrastructure, and immense
disparities of income, race, and
opportunity.

Disparities of income, race, and
opportunity.
But the city had come back, and

opportunity.
But the city had come back, and
Americans everywhere had begun

But the city had come back, and
Americans everywhere had begun
to recognize the crucial role

Americans everywhere had begun
to recognize the crucial role
urban places had played in the

to recognize the crucial role
urban places had played in the
tapestry of American history,

urban places had played in the
tapestry of American history,
carrying on the experiment New

tapestry of American history,
carrying on the experiment New
York had begun on the banks of

carrying on the experiment New
York had begun on the banks of
the Hudson 400 years before.

The experiment
is: How close can rich and poor

is: How close can rich and poor
live before the fabric

live before the fabric
completely falls apart?
How close can you put ethnic

How close can you put ethnic
groups that don't like one
another much?

Groups that don't like one
another much?
How much can you promise people

another much?
How much can you promise people
about a rich and privileged

How much can you promise people
about a rich and privileged
future and then not really be

about a rich and privileged
future and then not really be
able to deliver before they rise

future and then not really be
able to deliver before they rise
up and say, "Enough"?

Able to deliver before they rise
up and say, "Enough"?
And the answer here, over and

up and say, "Enough"?
And the answer here, over and
over and over again, has been

And the answer here, over and
over and over again, has been
that the fabric becomes

over and over again, has been
that the fabric becomes
tattered.

That the fabric becomes
tattered.
That sometimes the fabric even

tattered.
That sometimes the fabric even
becomes torn, but the fabric

That sometimes the fabric even
becomes torn, but the fabric
survives.

Becomes torn, but the fabric
survives.
For over a century,

survives.
For over a century,
people have talked about New

For over a century,
people have talked about New
York's exceptionalism as if it's

people have talked about New
York's exceptionalism as if it's
a place apart from the American

York's exceptionalism as if it's
a place apart from the American
experience.

A place apart from the American
experience.
I would submit, at the beginning

experience.
I would submit, at the beginning
of the 21st century, that New

I would submit, at the beginning
of the 21st century, that New
York is one of those places that

of the 21st century, that New
York is one of those places that
you can use to understand the

York is one of those places that
you can use to understand the
entire American experience...

You can use to understand the
entire American experience...
from a string of Indian villages

entire American experience...
from a string of Indian villages
out on the tip of the eastern

from a string of Indian villages
out on the tip of the eastern
seaboard to a place where blacks

out on the tip of the eastern
seaboard to a place where blacks
and Dutch and Jewish refugees

seaboard to a place where blacks
and Dutch and Jewish refugees
and people from the four corners

and Dutch and Jewish refugees
and people from the four corners
of the earth came in; to the

and people from the four corners
of the earth came in; to the
America factory that sort of

of the earth came in; to the
America factory that sort of
brushed people off from Ellis

America factory that sort of
brushed people off from Ellis
Island, taught them some

brushed people off from Ellis
Island, taught them some
English, and taught them what

Island, taught them some
English, and taught them what
they needed to know to head out

English, and taught them what
they needed to know to head out
into the rest of America; to a

they needed to know to head out
into the rest of America; to a
place that helps us understand

into the rest of America; to a
place that helps us understand
industrialism,

place that helps us understand
industrialism,
postindustrialism, marketplaces,

industrialism,
postindustrialism, marketplaces,
cultural production.

Postindustrialism, marketplaces,
cultural production.
It's this massive, belching

cultural production.
It's this massive, belching
place sending out ideas.

It's this massive, belching
place sending out ideas.
It's like everything is more

place sending out ideas.
It's like everything is more
intense here.

It's like everything is more
intense here.
The membrane is thinner.

Intense here.
The membrane is thinner.
So when it's hot, you sweat.

The membrane is thinner.
So when it's hot, you sweat.
When it's cold, you shiver.

So when it's hot, you sweat.
When it's cold, you shiver.
But New York lives that life and

When it's cold, you shiver.
But New York lives that life and
explains America... both to the

But New York lives that life and
explains America... both to the
world and explains America to

explains America... both to the
world and explains America to
America... in a way that I don't

world and explains America to
America... in a way that I don't
think people have ever given it

America... in a way that I don't
think people have ever given it
full credit for.

Think people have ever given it
full credit for.
Today, as it becomes this new

full credit for.
Today, as it becomes this new
ingatherer of nations, people

Today, as it becomes this new
ingatherer of nations, people
from Belize and Nigeria and

ingatherer of nations, people
from Belize and Nigeria and
Guyana and Taiwan and Vietnam

from Belize and Nigeria and
Guyana and Taiwan and Vietnam
and Colombia and Venezuela and

Guyana and Taiwan and Vietnam
and Colombia and Venezuela and
the Dominican Republic are

and Colombia and Venezuela and
the Dominican Republic are
making this new thing, this new

the Dominican Republic are
making this new thing, this new
place.

Making this new thing, this new
place.
So we are... we New Yorkers are

place.
So we are... we New Yorkers are
constantly self-inventing and

So we are... we New Yorkers are
constantly self-inventing and
sending ourselves out into the

constantly self-inventing and
sending ourselves out into the
rest of the country like a jolt

sending ourselves out into the
rest of the country like a jolt
of electricity.

Rest of the country like a jolt
of electricity.
America should thank us.

Of electricity.
America should thank us.
You know, take a little pause in

America should thank us.
You know, take a little pause in
the resentment and say, "Thank

You know, take a little pause in
the resentment and say, "Thank
you, New York, because you are

the resentment and say, "Thank
you, New York, because you are
that intensifier of all things

you, New York, because you are
that intensifier of all things
that are American."

that intensifier of all things
that are American."
Americans need New

that are American."
Americans need New
York because New York is one of

Americans need New
York because New York is one of
the few places in the country

York because New York is one of
the few places in the country
that allows difference to be

the few places in the country
that allows difference to be
celebrated, that allows people

that allows difference to be
celebrated, that allows people
to reach their full potential.

Celebrated, that allows people
to reach their full potential.
And that's, in a sense, what

to reach their full potential.
And that's, in a sense, what
drives civilization, what drives

And that's, in a sense, what
drives civilization, what drives
freedom, what moves us forward,

drives civilization, what drives
freedom, what moves us forward,
and is really the hope of the

freedom, what moves us forward,
and is really the hope of the
future.

And is really the hope of the
future.
New York represents the hope of

future.
New York represents the hope of
the future because it's there

New York represents the hope of
the future because it's there
for all of us, whether we never

the future because it's there
for all of us, whether we never
go there, whether we never see

for all of us, whether we never
go there, whether we never see
New York.

Go there, whether we never see
New York.
Whatever small town or small

New York.
Whatever small town or small
city we're from, it's important

Whatever small town or small
city we're from, it's important
that we know that somewhere in

city we're from, it's important
that we know that somewhere in
the country there is a place

that we know that somewhere in
the country there is a place
where we can go... no matter what

the country there is a place
where we can go... no matter what
we believe, no matter who we

where we can go... no matter what
we believe, no matter who we
are, no matter what we want to

we believe, no matter who we
are, no matter what we want to
do.

Are, no matter what we want to
do.
And we can find in that

do.
And we can find in that
place other people like

And we can find in that
place other people like
ourselves and a possibility of

place other people like
ourselves and a possibility of
reaching our full potential.

Ourselves and a possibility of
reaching our full potential.
I think New

reaching our full potential.
I think New
York is over in the sense that

I think New
York is over in the sense that
it's no longer really a city.

I mean, I think at this point
it's kind of the most densely

it's kind of the most densely
populated, noisiest, dirtiest

populated, noisiest, dirtiest
suburban environment in the

suburban environment in the
history of the world.
It's become a kind of theme

It's become a kind of theme
park.
Everything is a replica, you

park.
Everything is a replica, you
know, just by the fact they name

Everything is a replica, you
know, just by the fact they name
streets.

Know, just by the fact they name
streets.
You know, 52nd Street is called

streets.
You know, 52nd Street is called
Swing Street.

You know, 52nd Street is called
Swing Street.
It's like, you know, Disneyland

Swing Street.
It's like, you know, Disneyland
without the parking.

It's like, you know, Disneyland
without the parking.
So many commentators

without the parking.
So many commentators
are fond of saying that New York

So many commentators
are fond of saying that New York
is not like it used to be and

are fond of saying that New York
is not like it used to be and
it's going down.

But, you know, that shows some
unfamiliarity with history,

unfamiliarity with history,
because complaints about New

because complaints about New
York and predictions of its

York and predictions of its
demise have been so common for

demise have been so common for
so long and certainly go back at

so long and certainly go back at
least 100 years and more.
I think we're living

I think we're living
in one of the glory times.
I think, you know, the saga of

in one of the glory times.
I think, you know, the saga of
New York City is nowhere near

I think, you know, the saga of
New York City is nowhere near
to being over.

New York City is nowhere near
to being over.
The city has had good times and

to being over.
The city has had good times and
bad times and will continue to.

I think it was George M. Cohan
who referred to Broadway as a

who referred to Broadway as a
"fabulous invalid."

"fabulous invalid."
Well, I think New York City is

Well, I think New York City is
also in many ways a fabulous

also in many ways a fabulous
invalid.
New York City

New York City
has become so hot that it's
unbelievable.

Has become so hot that it's
unbelievable.
In the early '90s, it was just

unbelievable.
In the early '90s, it was just
the opposite.

In the early '90s, it was just
the opposite.
It was the closest that it's

the opposite.
It was the closest that it's
ever been to 1929 depression.

Today, New York City is hotter
than it ever was in the Roaring

than it ever was in the Roaring
'20s, in the Roaring '80s.
Right now, New York City is the

Right now, New York City is the
hottest it's ever been by far.
You feel in New

hottest it's ever been by far.
You feel in New
York City the energy coming up

You feel in New
York City the energy coming up
out of the sidewalks.

You know that you are in the
midst of something tremendous,

midst of something tremendous,
something...

something...
And if something tremendous

And if something tremendous
hasn't yet happened, it's just

hasn't yet happened, it's just
about to happen.

- About to happen.
- Yeah, it's

Yeah, it's always alive.

Always alive.
You can hear it now.
It's maintenance, the sound of

It's maintenance, the sound of
maintenance.
That's it, because it's the

maintenance.
That's it, because it's the
ultimate battle with entropy.

That's it, because it's the
ultimate battle with entropy.
There's no other more

ultimate battle with entropy.
There's no other more
entropic... I mean,

There's no other more
entropic... I mean... it's... all of the

entropic... I mean... it's... all of the
lights in the World Trade Center

it's... all of the lights in the World
Trade Center that are on at night on low are

lights in the World Trade Center
that are on at night on low are
sucking Indian Point Nuclear

that are on at night on low are
sucking Indian Point Nuclear
Power Station.

Sucking Indian Point Nuclear
Power Station.
It's one big live wire.

Power Station.
It's one big live wire.
REV. DR. CALVIN O. BUTTS III:

- It's one big live wire.
- Eight million people jammed

Eight million people jammed
together on a very small amount

Eight million people jammed
together on a very small amount
of space.

Together on a very small amount
of space.
People talk about how dirty our

of space.
People talk about how dirty our
city is.

People talk about how dirty our
city is.
It's amazingly clean for the

city is.
It's amazingly clean for the
huge numbers of people coming

It's amazingly clean for the
huge numbers of people coming
from so many different

huge numbers of people coming
from so many different
experiences who live here.

I think that the story ought to
be told that it's amazing that

be told that it's amazing that
New York exists.

New York exists.
And it does, and it goes on from

And it does, and it goes on from
day to day to day.
When you

When you
fly into the city at night and
you see the lights in this city

fly into the city at night and
you see the lights in this city
and the way this city lights up

you see the lights in this city
and the way this city lights up
like this crystal palace, it is

and the way this city lights up
like this crystal palace, it is
an unbelievable sight to see

like this crystal palace, it is
an unbelievable sight to see
Manhattan lit up at night from

an unbelievable sight to see
Manhattan lit up at night from
the sky.

And so not only are you in awe
of the lights and the beauty of

of the lights and the beauty of
it, but being from New York,

it, but being from New York,
being a New Yorker, when you

being a New Yorker, when you
come back into that, it's

- come back into that, it's "I'm home.
- " [Captioned by