American Experience (1988–…): Season 14, Episode 1 - New York: Part 6 - The City of Tomorrow - full transcript

"The contemporary
city is profoundly menaced, not
by any outside danger, but by an

city is profoundly menaced, not
by any outside danger, but by an
evil shaping within itself.

By any outside danger, but by an
evil shaping within itself.
This is the evil of the machine.

Evil shaping within itself.
This is the evil of the machine.
Because of the confusion of its

This is the evil of the machine.
Because of the confusion of its
different functions, its growing

Because of the confusion of its
different functions, its growing
mechanization, the omnipresence

different functions, its growing
mechanization, the omnipresence
and anarchy of the motorcar, the

mechanization, the omnipresence
and anarchy of the motorcar, the
city is at the mercy of

and anarchy of the motorcar, the
city is at the mercy of
industrial machines.

City is at the mercy of
industrial machines.
If it is to be saved, its

industrial machines.
If it is to be saved, its
structure must change.



If it is to be saved, its
structure must change.
And this change is inevitable,

structure must change.
And this change is inevitable,
whether it comes through insight

And this change is inevitable,
whether it comes through insight
or catastrophe.

Whether it comes through insight
or catastrophe.
The city must be changed or it

or catastrophe.
The city must be changed or it
will perish, and our

The city must be changed or it
will perish, and our
civilization with it."

will perish, and our
civilization with it."
Sigfried Giedion.

Civilization with it."
Sigfried Giedion.
All through the

Sigfried Giedion.
All through the
'20s' giddy upward rise, New

All through the
'20s' giddy upward rise, New
Yorkers had been pursuing

'20s' giddy upward rise, New
Yorkers had been pursuing
another kind of dream, not only

Yorkers had been pursuing
another kind of dream, not only
upward, but out, into the

another kind of dream, not only
upward, but out, into the
"expanse of green and blue"

upward, but out, into the
"expanse of green and blue"
that, as F. Scott Fitzgerald had



"expanse of green and blue"
that, as F. Scott Fitzgerald had
seen, "alone was limitless."

that, as F. Scott Fitzgerald had
seen, "alone was limitless."
Propelled by the rising

seen, "alone was limitless."
Propelled by the rising
prosperity and restlessness of

Propelled by the rising
prosperity and restlessness of
New Yorkers and by the

prosperity and restlessness of
New Yorkers and by the
revolutionary invention that

New Yorkers and by the
revolutionary invention that
since the turn of the century

revolutionary invention that
since the turn of the century
had become the shining emblem of

since the turn of the century
had become the shining emblem of
both, this fateful movement

had become the shining emblem of
both, this fateful movement
beyond the boundaries of Greater

both, this fateful movement
beyond the boundaries of Greater
New York would alter forever the

beyond the boundaries of Greater
New York would alter forever the
relation of the city and the

New York would alter forever the
relation of the city and the
country and challenge all

relation of the city and the
country and challenge all
previous assumptions about urban

country and challenge all
previous assumptions about urban
life.

Previous assumptions about urban
life.
The car

life.
The car
disaggregates.

The car
disaggregates.
The car unravels tight, closely

disaggregates.
The car unravels tight, closely
knit, interdependent urban

The car unravels tight, closely
knit, interdependent urban
regions because it makes place

knit, interdependent urban
regions because it makes place
less relevant.

Regions because it makes place
less relevant.
With a car, it doesn't matter

less relevant.
With a car, it doesn't matter
where someplace is.

So this relatively static, this
relatively rigid grid of streets

relatively rigid grid of streets
and buildings and railroad

and buildings and railroad
tracks has to somehow respond to

tracks has to somehow respond to
this thing which is hungry and

this thing which is hungry and
demanding, forces changes on the

demanding, forces changes on the
landscape.
So the car takes pride of place

So the car takes pride of place
among the variables that are
going to place demands on the

among the variables that are
going to place demands on the
city.

Going to place demands on the
city.
The car is the whole story.

City.
The car is the whole story.
In the decades to

The car is the whole story.
In the decades to
come, as the city moved through

In the decades to
come, as the city moved through
depression, world war, and

come, as the city moved through
depression, world war, and
beyond, New York would become

depression, world war, and
beyond, New York would become
the arena of a titanic contest

beyond, New York would become
the arena of a titanic contest
between the automobile and the

the arena of a titanic contest
between the automobile and the
pedestrian, between the highway

between the automobile and the
pedestrian, between the highway
and the city block, between the

pedestrian, between the highway
and the city block, between the
compact if often congested urban

and the city block, between the
compact if often congested urban
neighborhood and the sprawling

compact if often congested urban
neighborhood and the sprawling
if often anonymous commuter

neighborhood and the sprawling
if often anonymous commuter
suburb.

If often anonymous commuter
suburb.
Before it was over, that contest

suburb.
Before it was over, that contest
would all but tear the city

Before it was over, that contest
would all but tear the city
apart and force New Yorkers to

would all but tear the city
apart and force New Yorkers to
confront the most elemental

apart and force New Yorkers to
confront the most elemental
urban questions of all.

Confront the most elemental
urban questions of all.
What is a city?

Urban questions of all.
What is a city?
What makes cities work?

What is a city?
What makes cities work?
Why should there be cities at

What makes cities work?
Why should there be cities at
all?

Why should there be cities at
all?
No city as

all?
No city as
complex as New York, no city

No city as
complex as New York, no city
that builds itself and rebuilds

complex as New York, no city
that builds itself and rebuilds
itself so often and often so

that builds itself and rebuilds
itself so often and often so
well has a high point, has a

itself so often and often so
well has a high point, has a
magic moment.

New York is a constellation of
magic moments.

Magic moments.
What is astonishing about New

What is astonishing about New
York is how many of the magic

York is how many of the magic
moments of the past have managed

moments of the past have managed
to survive.
We have lost a lot, but we've

We have lost a lot, but we've
saved an awful lot.
What are the magic moments of

saved an awful lot.
What are the magic moments of
the 19th century?

What are the magic moments of
the 19th century?
The optimism of the city hall,

the 19th century?
The optimism of the city hall,
that sophisticated, French-

The optimism of the city hall,
that sophisticated, French-
inspired building.

That sophisticated, French-
inspired building.
What is another optimism?

Inspired building.
What is another optimism?
The Brooklyn Bridge.

What is another optimism?
The Brooklyn Bridge.
It's still there.

The Brooklyn Bridge.
It's still there.
What a leap the Brooklyn Bridge

It's still there.
What a leap the Brooklyn Bridge
was.

What a leap the Brooklyn Bridge
was.
What a leap Commissioners'

was.
What a leap Commissioners'
Plan was, and it's still intact

What a leap Commissioners'
Plan was, and it's still intact
pretty much.

Plan was, and it's still intact
pretty much.
What a vision Central Park was,

pretty much.
What a vision Central Park was,
and it's there.

What a vision Central Park was,
and it's there.
It's more beautiful now than

and it's there.
It's more beautiful now than
it's been perhaps since the time

It's more beautiful now than
it's been perhaps since the time
of Olmsted.

It's been perhaps since the time
of Olmsted.
Add to that these incredible

of Olmsted.
Add to that these incredible
office buildings that were

Add to that these incredible
office buildings that were
built, which concluded with some

office buildings that were
built, which concluded with some
kind of visible symbol at the

built, which concluded with some
kind of visible symbol at the
top.

Kind of visible symbol at the
top.
So I don't think we should think

top.
So I don't think we should think
of New York as being a closed

So I don't think we should think
of New York as being a closed
book.

Of New York as being a closed
book.
I mean, New York could be said

book.
I mean, New York could be said
to be like one of those

I mean, New York could be said
to be like one of those
incredible things you see in a

to be like one of those
incredible things you see in a
Fourth of July fireworks that

incredible things you see in a
Fourth of July fireworks that
just goes, boom, boom, boom, and

Fourth of July fireworks that
just goes, boom, boom, boom, and
it keeps going.

Just goes, boom, boom, boom, and
it keeps going.
We don't know how many layers of

it keeps going.
We don't know how many layers of
that explosion will happen

We don't know how many layers of
that explosion will happen
before it all peters out.

That explosion will happen
before it all peters out.
And we, of course, hope that it

before it all peters out.
And we, of course, hope that it
will never peter out.

And we, of course, hope that it
will never peter out.
New York is that explosion.

Will never peter out.
New York is that explosion.
By the autumn of

New York is that explosion.
By the autumn of
1929, as the most spectacular

By the autumn of
1929, as the most spectacular
decade in the history of the

1929, as the most spectacular
decade in the history of the
city came to a breathtaking

decade in the history of the
city came to a breathtaking
close, New York seemed to have

city came to a breathtaking
close, New York seemed to have
arrived at the very zenith of

close, New York seemed to have
arrived at the very zenith of
its dazzling career.

Arrived at the very zenith of
its dazzling career.
In 300 years, it had grown from

its dazzling career.
In 300 years, it had grown from
a tiny trading post on the far

In 300 years, it had grown from
a tiny trading post on the far
edge of the known world to

a tiny trading post on the far
edge of the known world to
become the undisputed cultural

edge of the known world to
become the undisputed cultural
and economic capital of the

become the undisputed cultural
and economic capital of the
world.

And economic capital of the
world.
Gathering in money and people

world.
Gathering in money and people
from around the globe, it had

Gathering in money and people
from around the globe, it had
made itself one of the

from around the globe, it had
made itself one of the
wealthiest and most densely

made itself one of the
wealthiest and most densely
populated places on earth, its

wealthiest and most densely
populated places on earth, its
population rising from fewer

populated places on earth, its
population rising from fewer
than 5,000 in 1776 to nearly

population rising from fewer
than 5,000 in 1776 to nearly
seven million a century and a

than 5,000 in 1776 to nearly
seven million a century and a
half later.

Seven million a century and a
half later.
Consecrated as no place on earth

half later.
Consecrated as no place on earth
to the power of commerce and

Consecrated as no place on earth
to the power of commerce and
money and unbeholden to any

to the power of commerce and
money and unbeholden to any
outside force, it had made

money and unbeholden to any
outside force, it had made
itself the supreme center of

outside force, it had made
itself the supreme center of
American life, then, in one last

itself the supreme center of
American life, then, in one last
glorious decade, from 1919 to

American life, then, in one last
glorious decade, from 1919 to
1929, finished bringing into

glorious decade, from 1919 to
1929, finished bringing into
existence a ravishing dream city

1929, finished bringing into
existence a ravishing dream city
on the island of Manhattan,

existence a ravishing dream city
on the island of Manhattan,
which had become the most modern

on the island of Manhattan,
which had become the most modern
place on earth.

Which had become the most modern
place on earth.
"One is stunned at

place on earth.
"One is stunned at
the sight of these upright

"One is stunned at
the sight of these upright
masses, buildings 50 stories

the sight of these upright
masses, buildings 50 stories
high, straight lines everywhere,

masses, buildings 50 stories
high, straight lines everywhere,
affirming the will to make room

high, straight lines everywhere,
affirming the will to make room
for millions.

Affirming the will to make room
for millions.
This is not an architecture for

for millions.
This is not an architecture for
men.

This is not an architecture for
men.
It is an architecture for human

men.
It is an architecture for human
masses.

It is an architecture for human
masses.
One cannot understand it without

masses.
One cannot understand it without
first having enjoyed the thrill

One cannot understand it without
first having enjoyed the thrill
of adding enormous totals and of

first having enjoyed the thrill
of adding enormous totals and of
living in a gigantic, compact,

of adding enormous totals and of
living in a gigantic, compact,
and brilliant world."

living in a gigantic, compact,
and brilliant world."
In the end, the

and brilliant world."
In the end, the
fever pitch of the 1920s,

In the end, the
fever pitch of the 1920s,
acknowledging no limits and

fever pitch of the 1920s,
acknowledging no limits and
building higher and higher,

acknowledging no limits and
building higher and higher,
could never have been sustained,

building higher and higher,
could never have been sustained,
as if, like Icarus, the city had

could never have been sustained,
as if, like Icarus, the city had
flown too close to the sun and

as if, like Icarus, the city had
flown too close to the sun and
then come tumbling back to earth

flown too close to the sun and
then come tumbling back to earth
again.

Then come tumbling back to earth
again.
In the years following the crash

again.
In the years following the crash
of 1929, as the greatest

In the years following the crash
of 1929, as the greatest
depression in American history

of 1929, as the greatest
depression in American history
plunged the city and nation into

depression in American history
plunged the city and nation into
economic gloom, two things would

plunged the city and nation into
economic gloom, two things would
become fatefully clear.

Economic gloom, two things would
become fatefully clear.
The city itself, acting on its

become fatefully clear.
The city itself, acting on its
own, could no longer meet the

The city itself, acting on its
own, could no longer meet the
needs of its own people.

Own, could no longer meet the
needs of its own people.
And unfettered capitalism in New

needs of its own people.
And unfettered capitalism in New
York, in a century and a half of

And unfettered capitalism in New
York, in a century and a half of
relentless commercial growth,

York, in a century and a half of
relentless commercial growth,
had been carried to its very

relentless commercial growth,
had been carried to its very
limit.

Had been carried to its very
limit.
In the years to come, as the

limit.
In the years to come, as the
greatest domestic crisis of the

In the years to come, as the
greatest domestic crisis of the
20th century swept across the

greatest domestic crisis of the
20th century swept across the
city and the nation, New Yorkers

20th century swept across the
city and the nation, New Yorkers
would be forced to reinvent

city and the nation, New Yorkers
would be forced to reinvent
their city once again on a

would be forced to reinvent
their city once again on a
massive scale, moving as they

their city once again on a
massive scale, moving as they
did into uncharted waters from

massive scale, moving as they
did into uncharted waters from
which there would be no return.

Did into uncharted waters from
which there would be no return.
Between 1929 and 1945, as

which there would be no return.
Between 1929 and 1945, as
immense new forces were

Between 1929 and 1945, as
immense new forces were
unleashed in New York, altering

immense new forces were
unleashed in New York, altering
forever the relation of the city

unleashed in New York, altering
forever the relation of the city
and the country, two of the most

forever the relation of the city
and the country, two of the most
remarkable New Yorkers of all

and the country, two of the most
remarkable New Yorkers of all
time would come to the fore...

Remarkable New Yorkers of all
time would come to the fore...
Fiorello La Guardia and Robert

time would come to the fore...
Fiorello La Guardia and Robert
Moses... and attempt to create in

Fiorello La Guardia and Robert
Moses... and attempt to create in
the darkest of times a bold new

Moses... and attempt to create in
the darkest of times a bold new
city of the future.

It's
strange to think how these two

strange to think how these two
powerful figures... Fiorello La

powerful figures... Fiorello La
Guardia and Robert Moses...

Guardia and Robert Moses...
Interacted, I mean, physically

interacted, I mean, physically
so different, La Guardia

so different, La Guardia
celebrating difference, loving

celebrating difference, loving
the tumble and the tide of the

the tumble and the tide of the
city, Robert Moses trying to

city, Robert Moses trying to
bring order to it.
But in some ways, they were able

But in some ways, they were able
to work together.
And I think you can't help but

to work together.
And I think you can't help but
look at New York in the 1930s

And I think you can't help but
look at New York in the 1930s
and marvel at the things that

look at New York in the 1930s
and marvel at the things that
were built during the Great

and marvel at the things that
were built during the Great
Depression: the new parks and

were built during the Great
Depression: the new parks and
playgrounds, the swimming pools,

Depression: the new parks and
playgrounds, the swimming pools,
the roads, the beaches.

Playgrounds, the swimming pools,
the roads, the beaches.
It was a time of achievement, a

the roads, the beaches.
It was a time of achievement, a
greater period of achievement

It was a time of achievement, a
greater period of achievement
than what we have seen at the

greater period of achievement
than what we have seen at the
end of the 20th century, when we

than what we have seen at the
end of the 20th century, when we
were so much more affluent and

end of the 20th century, when we
were so much more affluent and
the economy is booming.

Were so much more affluent and
the economy is booming.
"New cities have

the economy is booming.
"New cities have
always replaced old cities by

"New cities have
always replaced old cities by
periods, but today it is

always replaced old cities by
periods, but today it is
possible for the city of modern

periods, but today it is
possible for the city of modern
times, the happy city, the

possible for the city of modern
times, the happy city, the
radiant city to be born."

times, the happy city, the
radiant city to be born."
Le Corbusier.

We had
immensely increased the range of

immensely increased the range of
our dreams for ourselves in the

our dreams for ourselves in the
'20s, and that was why the Great

'20s, and that was why the Great
Depression was a terrible

Depression was a terrible
psychological shock to people.
It led to what amounted to

It led to what amounted to
almost to a clinical depression
on the part of the American

almost to a clinical depression
on the part of the American
people.

On the part of the American
people.
They could not believe that we

people.
They could not believe that we
had stumbled and fallen.

They could not believe that we
had stumbled and fallen.
There had been

had stumbled and fallen.
There had been
downturns before, boom times

There had been
downturns before, boom times
that went bust, followed by

downturns before, boom times
that went bust, followed by
years of hardship, want, and

that went bust, followed by
years of hardship, want, and
misery, but there had never been

years of hardship, want, and
misery, but there had never been
anything like the Great

misery, but there had never been
anything like the Great
Depression of the 1930s.

Anything like the Great
Depression of the 1930s.
On the eve of the crash, fewer

Depression of the 1930s.
On the eve of the crash, fewer
than two million people were

On the eve of the crash, fewer
than two million people were
unemployed in the United States.

Than two million people were
unemployed in the United States.
Less than two years later, the

unemployed in the United States.
Less than two years later, the
number had risen to more than

Less than two years later, the
number had risen to more than
eight million, and a year after

number had risen to more than
eight million, and a year after
that to 13 million... nearly a

eight million, and a year after
that to 13 million... nearly a
third of the nation's workforce.

That to 13 million... nearly a
third of the nation's workforce.
Nowhere in the country were the

third of the nation's workforce.
Nowhere in the country were the
effects more visible or more

Nowhere in the country were the
effects more visible or more
heartbreaking than in New York,

effects more visible or more
heartbreaking than in New York,
where, by 1931, the greatest

heartbreaking than in New York,
where, by 1931, the greatest
economic engine on earth had all

where, by 1931, the greatest
economic engine on earth had all
but ground to a halt.

Economic engine on earth had all
but ground to a halt.
What's

but ground to a halt.
What's
fascinating is that the bottom

What's
fascinating is that the bottom
doesn't drop out suddenly.

Fascinating is that the bottom
doesn't drop out suddenly.
The crash leads to a slow

doesn't drop out suddenly.
The crash leads to a slow
toppling effect.

The crash leads to a slow
toppling effect.
You know, they don't have a

toppling effect.
You know, they don't have a
sense that the world has

You know, they don't have a
sense that the world has
transformed and that things have

sense that the world has
transformed and that things have
changed irrevocably.

Transformed and that things have
changed irrevocably.
But slowly it takes hold.

Changed irrevocably.
But slowly it takes hold.
Obviously, one of the first

But slowly it takes hold.
Obviously, one of the first
things that gets hit is the

Obviously, one of the first
things that gets hit is the
financial sector.

And then the ripple effect in
terms of business services

terms of business services
spreads out from that.
The manufacturing sector is hit

The manufacturing sector is hit
extremely hard.
Huge numbers of people are

extremely hard.
Huge numbers of people are
either laid off in the garment

Huge numbers of people are
either laid off in the garment
business or in fact their wages

either laid off in the garment
business or in fact their wages
are cut in half.

Business or in fact their wages
are cut in half.
And industry

are cut in half.
And industry
after industry, from garment

And industry
after industry, from garment
manufacturing to construction,

after industry, from garment
manufacturing to construction,
kind of implode and in some

manufacturing to construction,
kind of implode and in some
cases really almost totally

kind of implode and in some
cases really almost totally
cease economic activity.

Cases really almost totally
cease economic activity.
And you have to remember this is

cease economic activity.
And you have to remember this is
before unemployment insurance,

And you have to remember this is
before unemployment insurance,
before any systematic

before unemployment insurance,
before any systematic
government-relief system.

And yet, it's already past the
era when people could go back to

era when people could go back to
the land, and certainly in New

the land, and certainly in New
York City very few people had

York City very few people had
organic relationships with, you

organic relationships with, you
know, land.
The consequences are

The consequences are
as they always are, that money
isn't coming in.

As they always are, that money
isn't coming in.
People can't make the rent.

Isn't coming in.
People can't make the rent.
There are massive evictions.

People can't make the rent.
There are massive evictions.
People begin to sort of crop up

There are massive evictions.
People begin to sort of crop up
in encampments in parks, on the

People begin to sort of crop up
in encampments in parks, on the
river's edge, in old auto dumps,

in encampments in parks, on the
river's edge, in old auto dumps,
around town.

River's edge, in old auto dumps,
around town.
Bread lines begin to form.

Around town.
Bread lines begin to form.
"December 24, 1931.

Bread lines begin to form.
"December 24, 1931.
Every day, one sees the

"December 24, 1931.
Every day, one sees the
degrading misery of bread lines.

Every day, one sees the
degrading misery of bread lines.
Every day, one is told that this

degrading misery of bread lines.
Every day, one is told that this
great industry and that, from

Every day, one is told that this
great industry and that, from
railroads to publishing, is

great industry and that, from
railroads to publishing, is
collapsing.

Railroads to publishing, is
collapsing.
The building slump spreads.

Collapsing.
The building slump spreads.
In New York, the most salient

The building slump spreads.
In New York, the most salient
new structure, the magnificent

In New York, the most salient
new structure, the magnificent
Empire State, stands unlet and

new structure, the magnificent
Empire State, stands unlet and
can only pay its taxes by

Empire State, stands unlet and
can only pay its taxes by
collecting dollars from the

can only pay its taxes by
collecting dollars from the
sightseers who ascend to its

collecting dollars from the
sightseers who ascend to its
aerie for the stupendous view.

Sightseers who ascend to its
aerie for the stupendous view.
Stories of failing banks,

aerie for the stupendous view.
Stories of failing banks,
turned-in motorcars, despairing

Stories of failing banks,
turned-in motorcars, despairing
suicides are dinned into one's

turned-in motorcars, despairing
suicides are dinned into one's
ears."

suicides are dinned into one's
ears."
Mary Agnes Hamilton.

Ears."
Mary Agnes Hamilton.
"You turn a corner

Mary Agnes Hamilton.
"You turn a corner
and here is a surprising

"You turn a corner
and here is a surprising
spectacle: a line of men, three

and here is a surprising
spectacle: a line of men, three
or sometimes four abreast, a

spectacle: a line of men, three
or sometimes four abreast, a
block long and wedged together

or sometimes four abreast, a
block long and wedged together
so tightly that no passerby can

block long and wedged together
so tightly that no passerby can
break through.

So tightly that no passerby can
break through.
Those at the head of this gray-

break through.
Those at the head of this gray-
black human snake will eat

Those at the head of this gray-
black human snake will eat
tonight.

Black human snake will eat
tonight.
Those farther back probably

tonight.
Those farther back probably
won't."

Those farther back probably
won't."
Bruce Bliven.

Won't."
Bruce Bliven.
1,600,000

Bruce Bliven.
1,600,000
people in New York of the city's

1,600,000
people in New York of the city's
population of 6,900,000...

People in New York of the city's
population of 6,900,000...
1,600,000 people were on relief

population of 6,900,000...
1,600,000 people were on relief
rolls.

1,600,000 people were on relief
rolls.
That's mothers, fathers, and

rolls.
That's mothers, fathers, and
children.

If you look down on Riverside
Park, which we were talking

Park, which we were talking
about, that's where the city

about, that's where the city
dumped its garbage and there

dumped its garbage and there
were huge mounds of garbage at

were huge mounds of garbage at
96th and 125th Street.
And you would see scores...

And you would see scores...
hundreds of women and children.
Whenever the trucks would come

hundreds of women and children.
Whenever the trucks would come
and dump the garbage, the

Whenever the trucks would come
and dump the garbage, the
children and mothers would run

and dump the garbage, the
children and mothers would run
to try and get some kind of food

children and mothers would run
to try and get some kind of food
out of there.

To try and get some kind of food
out of there.
It was

out of there.
It was
terrible in New York City.

It was
terrible in New York City.
In the country, at least you can

terrible in New York City.
In the country, at least you can
usually find something to eat.

But there were Hoovervilles in
Central Park.

Central Park.
In fact, my... the sheep that

In fact, my... the sheep that
grazed on the sheep meadow that

grazed on the sheep meadow that
had been donated by my great-

had been donated by my great-
great-great-grandfather, named

great-great-grandfather, named
George Coggle... he'd given the

George Coggle... he'd given the
sheep to Central Park in the

sheep to Central Park in the
1860s and the herd had stayed

1860s and the herd had stayed
there until 1934, when they were

there until 1934, when they were
moved upstate to the city's farm

moved upstate to the city's farm
in the Catskills because the

in the Catskills because the
city was afraid that the people

city was afraid that the people
living in the Hoovervilles would

living in the Hoovervilles would
look upon the sheep as lunch

look upon the sheep as lunch
more than as a touch of the

more than as a touch of the
bucolic.
By 1931, tens of

By 1931, tens of
thousands of New Yorkers had
been evicted from their homes.

Thousands of New Yorkers had
been evicted from their homes.
Those that could doubled up with

been evicted from their homes.
Those that could doubled up with
family and friends, but

Those that could doubled up with
family and friends, but
thousands more, unable to find

family and friends, but
thousands more, unable to find
any housing at all, sought what

thousands more, unable to find
any housing at all, sought what
shelter they could find in one

any housing at all, sought what
shelter they could find in one
of the dismal shantytowns that

shelter they could find in one
of the dismal shantytowns that
had begun to spring up along the

of the dismal shantytowns that
had begun to spring up along the
East River and the Hudson and in

had begun to spring up along the
East River and the Hudson and in
Central Park called Hoovervilles

East River and the Hudson and in
Central Park called Hoovervilles
in ironic tribute to the

Central Park called Hoovervilles
in ironic tribute to the
president.

In ironic tribute to the
president.
Well, we're here because

president.
Well, we're here because
there's no work to be found.

Well, we're here because
there's no work to be found.
We came down to the Hudson and

there's no work to be found.
We came down to the Hudson and
seen the lumber floating in the

We came down to the Hudson and
seen the lumber floating in the
river, so we thought of building

seen the lumber floating in the
river, so we thought of building
a shack.

River, so we thought of building
a shack.
So we built one so we are not a

a shack.
So we built one so we are not a
burden on the community.

So we built one so we are not a
burden on the community.
We have no rent to pay whatever.

Burden on the community.
We have no rent to pay whatever.
We haven't got no work.

We have no rent to pay whatever.
We haven't got no work.
We can't get no work.

We haven't got no work.
We can't get no work.
We're looking for work... can't

We can't get no work.
We're looking for work... can't
get no work, but we will find

We're looking for work... can't
get no work, but we will find
some in the future.

Get no work, but we will find
some in the future.
Month after month,

some in the future.
Month after month,
as the economic situation

Month after month,
as the economic situation
continued to deteriorate, calls

as the economic situation
continued to deteriorate, calls
for government action grew

continued to deteriorate, calls
for government action grew
louder.

For government action grew
louder.
In Harlem and in the Bronx,

louder.
In Harlem and in the Bronx,
where one in three workers in

In Harlem and in the Bronx,
where one in three workers in
the garment industry had been

where one in three workers in
the garment industry had been
laid off, thousands of

the garment industry had been
laid off, thousands of
protesters took to the streets,

laid off, thousands of
protesters took to the streets,
while across the city rent

protesters took to the streets,
while across the city rent
strikes broke out, along with

while across the city rent
strikes broke out, along with
political demonstrations of

strikes broke out, along with
political demonstrations of
every kind, sometimes escalating

political demonstrations of
every kind, sometimes escalating
into pitched battles with the

every kind, sometimes escalating
into pitched battles with the
police.

Into pitched battles with the
police.
The

police.
The
devastation was so broad and

The
devastation was so broad and
reached so high that had it just

devastation was so broad and
reached so high that had it just
been a manufacturing crisis so

reached so high that had it just
been a manufacturing crisis so
that unskilled laborers were out

been a manufacturing crisis so
that unskilled laborers were out
of work, I'm not convinced that

that unskilled laborers were out
of work, I'm not convinced that
everyone would have noticed.

Of work, I'm not convinced that
everyone would have noticed.
But everyone saw in the

everyone would have noticed.
But everyone saw in the
depression either someone they

But everyone saw in the
depression either someone they
knew or the likelihood that

depression either someone they
knew or the likelihood that
someone they knew would end up

knew or the likelihood that
someone they knew would end up
there.

It seemed very clearly out of
people's own hands, and I think

people's own hands, and I think
that did propel a kind of

that did propel a kind of
communal commitment.
"The temporary

"The temporary
bureaucracies of relief thrown
up by the crisis have all the

bureaucracies of relief thrown
up by the crisis have all the
character of a frail

up by the crisis have all the
character of a frail
expeditionary force sent into a

character of a frail
expeditionary force sent into a
war that is expected to last

expeditionary force sent into a
war that is expected to last
only three months and which has

war that is expected to last
only three months and which has
become instead a world war.

Only three months and which has
become instead a world war.
Their theory is still

become instead a world war.
Their theory is still
essentially that of charitably

Their theory is still
essentially that of charitably
helping bums and weaklings over

essentially that of charitably
helping bums and weaklings over
the rough places rather than

helping bums and weaklings over
the rough places rather than
mass cut down by a kind of

the rough places rather than
mass cut down by a kind of
economic massacre."

mass cut down by a kind of
economic massacre."
The New Republic.

Economic massacre."
The New Republic.
Under Herbert

The New Republic.
Under Herbert
Hoover, federal authorities had

Under Herbert
Hoover, federal authorities had
all but washed their hands of

Hoover, federal authorities had
all but washed their hands of
responsibility for the growing

all but washed their hands of
responsibility for the growing
number of destitute Americans.

Responsibility for the growing
number of destitute Americans.
New York State itself, under

number of destitute Americans.
New York State itself, under
Governor Franklin Roosevelt, had

New York State itself, under
Governor Franklin Roosevelt, had
been among the first to respond

Governor Franklin Roosevelt, had
been among the first to respond
with large-scale relief

been among the first to respond
with large-scale relief
programs, but little of the

with large-scale relief
programs, but little of the
money that passed through city

programs, but little of the
money that passed through city
hall reached the people for whom

money that passed through city
hall reached the people for whom
it had been intended, as Tammany

hall reached the people for whom
it had been intended, as Tammany
officials pocketed most of the

it had been intended, as Tammany
officials pocketed most of the
funds, then made sure most of

officials pocketed most of the
funds, then made sure most of
the rest was distributed to

funds, then made sure most of
the rest was distributed to
party regulars.

The rest was distributed to
party regulars.
New York then was a

party regulars.
New York then was a
city utterly unable to meet the

New York then was a
city utterly unable to meet the
needs of its people in almost

city utterly unable to meet the
needs of its people in almost
every respect.

Needs of its people in almost
every respect.
The Tammany machine was totally

every respect.
The Tammany machine was totally
corrupt.

The Tammany machine was totally
corrupt.
A really shocking percentage of

corrupt.
A really shocking percentage of
the relief dollars that came in

A really shocking percentage of
the relief dollars that came in
to New York were siphoned off by

the relief dollars that came in
to New York were siphoned off by
the Tammany machine.

To New York were siphoned off by
the Tammany machine.
In 1931 and '32 and '33, New

the Tammany machine.
In 1931 and '32 and '33, New
York was a city paralyzed and it

In 1931 and '32 and '33, New
York was a city paralyzed and it
seemed like a city where there

York was a city paralyzed and it
seemed like a city where there
was basically no hope of it ever

seemed like a city where there
was basically no hope of it ever
meeting the needs of, you might

was basically no hope of it ever
meeting the needs of, you might
say, the 20th century.

Meeting the needs of, you might
say, the 20th century.
The automobile age had arrived.

Say, the 20th century.
The automobile age had arrived.
The city was strangling on its

The automobile age had arrived.
The city was strangling on its
traffic.

The city was strangling on its
traffic.
It was unable to build a single

traffic.
It was unable to build a single
mile of arterial highway.

It was unable to build a single
mile of arterial highway.
It had an idea of building what

mile of arterial highway.
It had an idea of building what
we now know as the Henry Hudson

It had an idea of building what
we now know as the Henry Hudson
Bridge.

We now know as the Henry Hudson
Bridge.
They had been talking about it

Bridge.
They had been talking about it
for 30 years.

They had been talking about it
for 30 years.
It wasn't built.

For 30 years.
It wasn't built.
The Triborough Bridge had been

It wasn't built.
The Triborough Bridge had been
started and stopped.

The Triborough Bridge had been
started and stopped.
And there was no hope of

started and stopped.
And there was no hope of
starting these things in any

And there was no hope of
starting these things in any
foreseeable future.

Starting these things in any
foreseeable future.
For years, rumors

foreseeable future.
For years, rumors
of official malfeasance had

For years, rumors
of official malfeasance had
swirled around city hall, which,

of official malfeasance had
swirled around city hall, which,
by 1931, had been occupied for

swirled around city hall, which,
by 1931, had been occupied for
more than half a decade by a

by 1931, had been occupied for
more than half a decade by a
dapper and charmingly corrupt

more than half a decade by a
dapper and charmingly corrupt
ex-vaudeville performer and

dapper and charmingly corrupt
ex-vaudeville performer and
Tammany man named James J.

Ex-vaudeville performer and
Tammany man named James J.
Walker, under whose reign

Tammany man named James J.
Walker, under whose reign
Tammany's system of patronage

Walker, under whose reign
Tammany's system of patronage
and spoils had spiraled

Tammany's system of patronage
and spoils had spiraled
completely out of control.

And spoils had spiraled
completely out of control.
Well, I'm sure I

completely out of control.
Well, I'm sure I
would have liked him.

Well, I'm sure I
would have liked him.
He must have been a marvelous

would have liked him.
He must have been a marvelous
person to spend time with.

He must have been a marvelous
person to spend time with.
I mean, he was a dreadful mayor.

Person to spend time with.
I mean, he was a dreadful mayor.
He often didn't show up until

I mean, he was a dreadful mayor.
He often didn't show up until
noon and was usually gone by

He often didn't show up until
noon and was usually gone by
three in the afternoon.

Noon and was usually gone by
three in the afternoon.
And he was a songwriter.

Three in the afternoon.
And he was a songwriter.
He wrote, you know, "Will You

And he was a songwriter.
He wrote, you know, "Will You
Love Me in December As You Do in

He wrote, you know, "Will You
Love Me in December As You Do in
May," still a famous song.

Love Me in December As You Do in
May," still a famous song.
I think he fitted his times very

May," still a famous song.
I think he fitted his times very
well.

I think he fitted his times very
well.
Was he a good mayor?

Well.
Was he a good mayor?
No, he was an awful mayor.

Was he a good mayor?
No, he was an awful mayor.
He was as crooked as a dog's

No, he was an awful mayor.
He was as crooked as a dog's
hind leg.

He was as crooked as a dog's
hind leg.
Robert Moses had the

hind leg.
Robert Moses had the
perfect expression for Jimmy

Robert Moses had the
perfect expression for Jimmy
Walker: half Beau Brummell, half

perfect expression for Jimmy
Walker: half Beau Brummell, half
guttersnipe.

Walker: half Beau Brummell, half
guttersnipe.
Moses would watch Walker walk

guttersnipe.
Moses would watch Walker walk
into the office in the morning.

Moses would watch Walker walk
into the office in the morning.
You know, he wore a single-

into the office in the morning.
You know, he wore a single-
button suit, perfect, the

You know, he wore a single-
button suit, perfect, the
narrowest of cravats, spats,

button suit, perfect, the
narrowest of cravats, spats,
the highly polished shoes.

Narrowest of cravats, spats,
the highly polished shoes.
Robert Moses would see him come

the highly polished shoes.
Robert Moses would see him come
in the morning, there would be a

Robert Moses would see him come
in the morning, there would be a
pile of mail on his desk, and

in the morning, there would be a
pile of mail on his desk, and
he'd say, "Any checks in there?"

pile of mail on his desk, and
he'd say, "Any checks in there?"
And if someone said "No," he'd

he'd say, "Any checks in there?"
And if someone said "No," he'd
sweep them all off the desk.

And if someone said "No," he'd
sweep them all off the desk.
His mayoralty of the city of New

sweep them all off the desk.
His mayoralty of the city of New
York, you know, is sort of

His mayoralty of the city of New
York, you know, is sort of
enshrined as legend, as

York, you know, is sort of
enshrined as legend, as
something with an overtone of

enshrined as legend, as
something with an overtone of
fun, but it wasn't fun for the

something with an overtone of
fun, but it wasn't fun for the
people of the city.

Fun, but it wasn't fun for the
people of the city.
The city was doing nothing to

people of the city.
The city was doing nothing to
help its people in the depths of

The city was doing nothing to
help its people in the depths of
the depression.

Help its people in the depths of
the depression.
It was doing remarkably little.

The depression.
It was doing remarkably little.
The problem was that

It was doing remarkably little.
The problem was that
there was no money coming from

The problem was that
there was no money coming from
the state and there was no money

there was no money coming from
the state and there was no money
coming from the federal

the state and there was no money
coming from the federal
government.

Coming from the federal
government.
So he was left with no recourse,

government.
So he was left with no recourse,
really, but to borrow.

So he was left with no recourse,
really, but to borrow.
And he borrowed and he borrowed

really, but to borrow.
And he borrowed and he borrowed
and he borrowed.

And he borrowed and he borrowed
and he borrowed.
And in fact, in the end, he

and he borrowed.
And in fact, in the end, he
basically had to agree that the

And in fact, in the end, he
basically had to agree that the
city would, in fact, make

basically had to agree that the
city would, in fact, make
tremendous cuts in public

city would, in fact, make
tremendous cuts in public
service, stop these public-works

tremendous cuts in public
service, stop these public-works
programs, lay off workers, and

service, stop these public-works
programs, lay off workers, and
the rest of it.

Programs, lay off workers, and
the rest of it.
And it was at this moment,

the rest of it.
And it was at this moment,
really, that he ran into even

And it was at this moment,
really, that he ran into even
more serious trouble and the

really, that he ran into even
more serious trouble and the
investigations of Walker begin

more serious trouble and the
investigations of Walker begin
that lead to his downfall.

Investigations of Walker begin
that lead to his downfall.
The beginning of

that lead to his downfall.
The beginning of
the end of Walker's reign came

The beginning of
the end of Walker's reign came
in the fall of 1930, when

the end of Walker's reign came
in the fall of 1930, when
Governor Franklin Roosevelt,

in the fall of 1930, when
Governor Franklin Roosevelt,
obliged to distance himself from

Governor Franklin Roosevelt,
obliged to distance himself from
Tammany Hall as he prepared his

obliged to distance himself from
Tammany Hall as he prepared his
run for the presidency,

Tammany Hall as he prepared his
run for the presidency,
appointed a fiercely upright

run for the presidency,
appointed a fiercely upright
reform-minded judge named Samuel

appointed a fiercely upright
reform-minded judge named Samuel
Seabury to investigate

reform-minded judge named Samuel
Seabury to investigate
corruption in city government.

Seabury to investigate
corruption in city government.
And they begin to

corruption in city government.
And they begin to
find... it's not too hard, you

And they begin to
find... it's not too hard, you
know... massive amounts of

find... it's not too hard, you
know... massive amounts of
official malfeasance and

know... massive amounts of
official malfeasance and
corruption, particularly in the

official malfeasance and
corruption, particularly in the
police department and the

corruption, particularly in the
police department and the
judicial system.

Police department and the
judicial system.
One of the nastiest thing is

judicial system.
One of the nastiest thing is
that they're running this vice

One of the nastiest thing is
that they're running this vice
racketeering, where not only do

that they're running this vice
racketeering, where not only do
they arrest prostitutes and

racketeering, where not only do
they arrest prostitutes and
then, you know, accept payoffs

they arrest prostitutes and
then, you know, accept payoffs
to let them off, but

then, you know, accept payoffs
to let them off, but
increasingly they begin just

to let them off, but
increasingly they begin just
arresting women off the street,

increasingly they begin just
arresting women off the street,
respectable middle-class women,

arresting women off the street,
respectable middle-class women,
and, you know, threatening to

respectable middle-class women,
and, you know, threatening to
sort of expose them unless they

and, you know, threatening to
sort of expose them unless they
pay off.

Sort of expose them unless they
pay off.
It's really rampant, running-

pay off.
It's really rampant, running-
amok stuff.

It's really rampant, running-
amok stuff.
And what Seabury does is he

amok stuff.
And what Seabury does is he
begins to sort of go up the

And what Seabury does is he
begins to sort of go up the
chain of command, getting closer

begins to sort of go up the
chain of command, getting closer
and closer to Walker.

Chain of command, getting closer
and closer to Walker.
In the spring of

and closer to Walker.
In the spring of
1932, Walker himself was called

In the spring of
1932, Walker himself was called
to testify.

1932, Walker himself was called
to testify.
On the morning of May 25th, the

to testify.
On the morning of May 25th, the
immensely popular mayor pushed

On the morning of May 25th, the
immensely popular mayor pushed
his way through a throng of

immensely popular mayor pushed
his way through a throng of
5,000 admirers outside the

his way through a throng of
5,000 admirers outside the
county courthouse on Foley

5,000 admirers outside the
county courthouse on Foley
Square and strode confidently

county courthouse on Foley
Square and strode confidently
into the courtroom.

Square and strode confidently
into the courtroom.
Informed of Walker's rousing

into the courtroom.
Informed of Walker's rousing
reception, Seabury said simply,

Informed of Walker's rousing
reception, Seabury said simply,
"They gave one to Boss Tweed,

reception, Seabury said simply,
"They gave one to Boss Tweed,
too."

"They gave one to Boss Tweed,
too."
You know, Walker was so

too."
You know, Walker was so
charming that when Judge Samuel

You know, Walker was so
charming that when Judge Samuel
Seabury was having his

charming that when Judge Samuel
Seabury was having his
investigation, he was advised by

Seabury was having his
investigation, he was advised by
his aides, "He's so charming,

investigation, he was advised by
his aides, "He's so charming,
don't look him in the eye or

his aides, "He's so charming,
don't look him in the eye or
he'll charm you."

don't look him in the eye or
he'll charm you."
So when Seabury was cross-

he'll charm you."
So when Seabury was cross-
examining Jimmy Walker on the

So when Seabury was cross-
examining Jimmy Walker on the
stand, he tried to stand

examining Jimmy Walker on the
stand, he tried to stand
sideways so that Walker couldn't

stand, he tried to stand
sideways so that Walker couldn't
catch his eye.

Sideways so that Walker couldn't
catch his eye.
Once on the witness

catch his eye.
Once on the witness
stand, however, there was little

Once on the witness
stand, however, there was little
Walker could do, as Seabury

stand, however, there was little
Walker could do, as Seabury
marshaled evidence of the nearly

Walker could do, as Seabury
marshaled evidence of the nearly
$1 million the mayor had

marshaled evidence of the nearly
$1 million the mayor had
pocketed in kickbacks... moneys

$1 million the mayor had
pocketed in kickbacks... moneys
Walker himself gamely tried to

pocketed in kickbacks... moneys
Walker himself gamely tried to
explain away as beneficences.

Walker himself gamely tried to
explain away as beneficences.
By the end of the summer, it was

explain away as beneficences.
By the end of the summer, it was
clear to almost everyone that

By the end of the summer, it was
clear to almost everyone that
Walker had to go.

Clear to almost everyone that
Walker had to go.
And he abdicates.

Walker had to go.
And he abdicates.
He leaves office.

And he abdicates.
He leaves office.
Seabury was not about to

He leaves office.
Seabury was not about to
actually bring formal charges.

Seabury was not about to
actually bring formal charges.
He said, "I got lots of

actually bring formal charges.
He said, "I got lots of
circumstantial evidence, but I

He said, "I got lots of
circumstantial evidence, but I
don't have that smoking gun."

circumstantial evidence, but I
don't have that smoking gun."
But it was Roosevelt behind the

don't have that smoking gun."
But it was Roosevelt behind the
scenes that made sure that

But it was Roosevelt behind the
scenes that made sure that
Walker would, in fact, now take

scenes that made sure that
Walker would, in fact, now take
his much delayed exit.

Walker would, in fact, now take
his much delayed exit.
Franklin Roosevelt,

his much delayed exit.
Franklin Roosevelt,
governor of New York, gave him

Franklin Roosevelt,
governor of New York, gave him
his choice of resigning or being

governor of New York, gave him
his choice of resigning or being
fired and he opted to resign, to

his choice of resigning or being
fired and he opted to resign, to
be replaced by this nobody named

fired and he opted to resign, to
be replaced by this nobody named
"Boo Boo" O'Brien, who's famous

be replaced by this nobody named
"Boo Boo" O'Brien, who's famous
for his first press conference.

"Boo Boo" O'Brien, who's famous
for his first press conference.
Somebody asked him who the new

for his first press conference.
Somebody asked him who the new
sewer commissioner was going to

Somebody asked him who the new
sewer commissioner was going to
be and "Boo Boo" O'Brien said,

sewer commissioner was going to
be and "Boo Boo" O'Brien said,
"I don't know; they haven't told

be and "Boo Boo" O'Brien said,
"I don't know; they haven't told
me yet."

"I don't know; they haven't told
me yet."
You, too,

me yet."
You, too,
will find out what criticism is.

You, too,
will find out what criticism is.

- Will find out what criticism is.
- You, too, though will find the

You, too, though will find the
same comfort in the midst of

You, too, though will find the
same comfort in the midst of
criticism that comes from an

same comfort in the midst of
criticism that comes from an
easy conscience and a knowledge

criticism that comes from an
easy conscience and a knowledge
within yourself that no matter

easy conscience and a knowledge
within yourself that no matter
whether misunderstood or not,

within yourself that no matter
whether misunderstood or not,
you did the best you could.

Whether misunderstood or not,
you did the best you could.
On September 1,

you did the best you could.
On September 1,
1932, Jimmy Walker left city

On September 1,
1932, Jimmy Walker left city
hall for the last time, vowed to

1932, Jimmy Walker left city
hall for the last time, vowed to
run again and clear his record,

hall for the last time, vowed to
run again and clear his record,
then sailed for Europe to join

run again and clear his record,
then sailed for Europe to join
his mistress, the actress Betty

then sailed for Europe to join
his mistress, the actress Betty
Compton, in Paris.

His mistress, the actress Betty
Compton, in Paris.
"That dazzling,

Compton, in Paris.
"That dazzling,
theatrical, and essentially

"That dazzling,
theatrical, and essentially
absurd career has collapsed at

theatrical, and essentially
absurd career has collapsed at
last."

absurd career has collapsed at
last."
The New York Herald-Tribune.

Last."
The New York Herald-Tribune.
"The elimination of

The New York Herald-Tribune.
"The elimination of
Mr. Walker as mayor of this city

"The elimination of
Mr. Walker as mayor of this city
is a distinct victory for higher

Mr. Walker as mayor of this city
is a distinct victory for higher
standards of public life."

is a distinct victory for higher
standards of public life."
Judge Samuel Seabury.

Standards of public life."
Judge Samuel Seabury.
You didn't think I

Judge Samuel Seabury.
You didn't think I
had any, did you?

You didn't think I
had any, did you?
More than anyone

had any, did you?
More than anyone
realized, the demise of Jimmy

More than anyone
realized, the demise of Jimmy
Walker and the devastating

realized, the demise of Jimmy
Walker and the devastating
depression that triggered it had

Walker and the devastating
depression that triggered it had
set the stage for one of the

depression that triggered it had
set the stage for one of the
most far-reaching political

set the stage for one of the
most far-reaching political
transformations in American

most far-reaching political
transformations in American
history.

Transformations in American
history.
Before the year was out,

history.
Before the year was out,
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's deft

Before the year was out,
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's deft
handling of the Walker scandal

Franklin Delano Roosevelt's deft
handling of the Walker scandal
had helped propel him to the

handling of the Walker scandal
had helped propel him to the
White House.

Had helped propel him to the
White House.
FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT:

- White House.
- Give me your help, not to win

Give me your help, not to win
votes alone, but to win in this

Give me your help, not to win
votes alone, but to win in this
crusade to restore America to

votes alone, but to win in this
crusade to restore America to
its own people.

Crusade to restore America to
its own people.
In New York,

its own people.
In New York,
meanwhile, with Tammany on the

In New York,
meanwhile, with Tammany on the
retreat for the first time in 15

meanwhile, with Tammany on the
retreat for the first time in 15
years, reformers saw their

retreat for the first time in 15
years, reformers saw their
chance of finally retaking city

years, reformers saw their
chance of finally retaking city
hall, pinning their hopes on a

chance of finally retaking city
hall, pinning their hopes on a
brilliant young civil servant

hall, pinning their hopes on a
brilliant young civil servant
named Robert Moses, who, under

brilliant young civil servant
named Robert Moses, who, under
Al Smith, had built the first

named Robert Moses, who, under
Al Smith, had built the first
state park system in the country

Al Smith, had built the first
state park system in the country
and the first system of public

state park system in the country
and the first system of public
highways in the world.

And the first system of public
highways in the world.
The reform forces

highways in the world.
The reform forces
realize after Walker is out that

The reform forces
realize after Walker is out that
Tammany is a wounded beast and

realize after Walker is out that
Tammany is a wounded beast and
that there's a possibility for

Tammany is a wounded beast and
that there's a possibility for
actually winning power for a

that there's a possibility for
actually winning power for a
reform candidate.

Actually winning power for a
reform candidate.
The question is: Who is it going

reform candidate.
The question is: Who is it going
to be?

The question is: Who is it going
to be?
The person that most of the

to be?
The person that most of the
reformers want is Robert Moses.

The person that most of the
reformers want is Robert Moses.
But Samuel Seabury who is,

reformers want is Robert Moses.
But Samuel Seabury who is,
because of his role in the

But Samuel Seabury who is,
because of his role in the
investigation, the kingmaker

because of his role in the
investigation, the kingmaker
here, won't hear of it.

Investigation, the kingmaker
here, won't hear of it.
Why?

Here, won't hear of it.
Why?
Because Moses is an Al Smith man

Why?
Because Moses is an Al Smith man
and Al Smith is a Tammany man

Because Moses is an Al Smith man
and Al Smith is a Tammany man
and Seabury is determined to

and Al Smith is a Tammany man
and Seabury is determined to
keep Tammany out of city hall.

And Seabury is determined to
keep Tammany out of city hall.
He wants Fiorello La Guardia.

Keep Tammany out of city hall.
He wants Fiorello La Guardia.
He was in many ways

He wants Fiorello La Guardia.
He was in many ways
the least likely of candidates,

He was in many ways
the least likely of candidates,
a short, excitable, 51-year-old

the least likely of candidates,
a short, excitable, 51-year-old
ex-congressman and failed

a short, excitable, 51-year-old
ex-congressman and failed
mayoral candidate widely thought

ex-congressman and failed
mayoral candidate widely thought
to be finished in politics,

mayoral candidate widely thought
to be finished in politics,
having lost to Jimmy Walker only

to be finished in politics,
having lost to Jimmy Walker only
four years before in one of the

having lost to Jimmy Walker only
four years before in one of the
biggest landslides in the city's

four years before in one of the
biggest landslides in the city's
history.

Biggest landslides in the city's
history.
Actually, the idea

history.
Actually, the idea
of La Guardia horrifies most of

Actually, the idea
of La Guardia horrifies most of
the reformers.

Of La Guardia horrifies most of
the reformers.
This guy had been the most

the reformers.
This guy had been the most
radical congressman all through

This guy had been the most
radical congressman all through
the 1920s.

Radical congressman all through
the 1920s.
And then when the depression

the 1920s.
And then when the depression
came, he was railing furiously

And then when the depression
came, he was railing furiously
against Hoover, his own party

came, he was railing furiously
against Hoover, his own party
administration, for not, in

against Hoover, his own party
administration, for not, in
fact, helping the unemployed.

Administration, for not, in
fact, helping the unemployed.
And he was also attacking

fact, helping the unemployed.
And he was also attacking
bankers, you know?

And he was also attacking
bankers, you know?
"Those bastards broke the

bankers, you know?
"Those bastards broke the
people's back with their usury.

"Those bastards broke the
people's back with their usury.
Let them die.

People's back with their usury.
Let them die.
The people will survive."

Let them die.
The people will survive."
Well, you know, the forces of

The people will survive."
Well, you know, the forces of
reform were not exactly

Well, you know, the forces of
reform were not exactly
interested in this kind of

reform were not exactly
interested in this kind of
rabble-rouser.

Interested in this kind of
rabble-rouser.
But Seabury was

rabble-rouser.
But Seabury was
adamant.

But Seabury was
adamant.
"He's absolutely honest," the

adamant.
"He's absolutely honest," the
judge declared.

"He's absolutely honest," the
judge declared.
"He's a man of great courage and

judge declared.
"He's a man of great courage and
he can win."

"He's a man of great courage and
he can win."
I shall

he can win."
I shall
be the mayor of the city of New

I shall
be the mayor of the city of New
York.

Be the mayor of the city of New
York.
Why did Seabury want

York.
Why did Seabury want
him?

Why did Seabury want
him?
Because, in fact, the guy was a

him?
Because, in fact, the guy was a
scrapper, because the guy knew

Because, in fact, the guy was a
scrapper, because the guy knew
how to really go out and

scrapper, because the guy knew
how to really go out and
campaign.

How to really go out and
campaign.
A lot of the good-government

campaign.
A lot of the good-government
types had never, you know, set

A lot of the good-government
types had never, you know, set
foot in the streets.

Types had never, you know, set
foot in the streets.
This guy could debate, you know,

foot in the streets.
This guy could debate, you know,
in Yiddish to get the Jewish

This guy could debate, you know,
in Yiddish to get the Jewish
vote.

In Yiddish to get the Jewish
vote.
And... very important... he had a

vote.
And... very important... he had a
large, disaffected Italian

And... very important... he had a
large, disaffected Italian
constituency, whom, in fact, had

large, disaffected Italian
constituency, whom, in fact, had
been kept out of access to power

constituency, whom, in fact, had
been kept out of access to power
and jobs by the Irish Tammany

been kept out of access to power
and jobs by the Irish Tammany
machine.

And jobs by the Irish Tammany
machine.
He was, in a way,

machine.
He was, in a way,
reflective of New York City, a

He was, in a way,
reflective of New York City, a
one-person melting pot.

Reflective of New York City, a
one-person melting pot.
Mother is Jewish.

One-person melting pot.
Mother is Jewish.
Father is Italian.

Mother is Jewish.
Father is Italian.
He's an Episcopalian, speaks

Father is Italian.
He's an Episcopalian, speaks
different languages, but a

He's an Episcopalian, speaks
different languages, but a
person who is comfortable with

different languages, but a
person who is comfortable with
difference... a person who not

person who is comfortable with
difference... a person who not
only is comfortable with it,

difference... a person who not
only is comfortable with it,
celebrates it.

Only is comfortable with it,
celebrates it.
I think he's also

celebrates it.
I think he's also
the first mayor to embody in his

I think he's also
the first mayor to embody in his
style a kind of multiculturalism

the first mayor to embody in his
style a kind of multiculturalism
that really embraces all New

style a kind of multiculturalism
that really embraces all New
Yorkers, that says the greatness

that really embraces all New
Yorkers, that says the greatness
of the city is precisely in its

Yorkers, that says the greatness
of the city is precisely in its
heterogeneity, that this is its

of the city is precisely in its
heterogeneity, that this is its
richness, not in its august

heterogeneity, that this is its
richness, not in its august
traditions, not in its great

richness, not in its august
traditions, not in its great
wealth.

Traditions, not in its great
wealth.
I think he was

wealth.
I think he was
committed to the mess that was

I think he was
committed to the mess that was
New York.

Committed to the mess that was
New York.
It wasn't neat.

New York.
It wasn't neat.
It was combative and it was

It wasn't neat.
It was combative and it was
energizing and it was complex,

It was combative and it was
energizing and it was complex,
and I think that's what he was

energizing and it was complex,
and I think that's what he was
trying to get at was allowing

and I think that's what he was
trying to get at was allowing
people to thrive in that kind of

trying to get at was allowing
people to thrive in that kind of
equal-opportunity community and

people to thrive in that kind of
equal-opportunity community and
to try to build that kind of

equal-opportunity community and
to try to build that kind of
city.

To try to build that kind of
city.
On election day,

city.
On election day,
the largest turnout in the

On election day,
the largest turnout in the
city's history, over two million

the largest turnout in the
city's history, over two million
voters, propelled the fusion

city's history, over two million
voters, propelled the fusion
candidate into city hall by the

voters, propelled the fusion
candidate into city hall by the
narrowest of margins.

Candidate into city hall by the
narrowest of margins.
At 12:05 a.m. on the morning of

narrowest of margins.
At 12:05 a.m. on the morning of
January 1, 1934, while the

At 12:05 a.m. on the morning of
January 1, 1934, while the
streets filled with thousands of

January 1, 1934, while the
streets filled with thousands of
New Yorkers celebrating the

streets filled with thousands of
New Yorkers celebrating the
repeal of Prohibition, La

New Yorkers celebrating the
repeal of Prohibition, La
Guardia took the oath of office

repeal of Prohibition, La
Guardia took the oath of office
in the library of Samuel

Guardia took the oath of office
in the library of Samuel
Seabury's townhouse on East 63rd

in the library of Samuel
Seabury's townhouse on East 63rd
Street.

Seabury's townhouse on East 63rd
Street.
I do.

Street.
I do.
Now we have a mayor in

I do.
Now we have a mayor in
New York City.

Now we have a mayor in
New York City.
Thank you, Judge

New York City.
Thank you, Judge
Seabury.

Thank you, Judge
Seabury.
It was perfect

Seabury.
It was perfect
timing.

It was perfect
timing.
He was precisely the mayor that

timing.
He was precisely the mayor that
New York City needed to get

He was precisely the mayor that
New York City needed to get
through the depression and the

New York City needed to get
through the depression and the
world war.

Through the depression and the
world war.
He was the mayor of New York

world war.
He was the mayor of New York
City during the most difficult

He was the mayor of New York
City during the most difficult
time ever to be mayor of New

City during the most difficult
time ever to be mayor of New
York City.

When we talk about fiscal
problems in New York City, we're

problems in New York City, we're
talking about ranges of

talking about ranges of
unemployment that go between

unemployment that go between
four and eight percent.
He was talking about 50%

He was talking about 50%
unemployment... a city that was
totally devastated.

Unemployment... a city that was
totally devastated.
So he took over New York City in

totally devastated.
So he took over New York City in
1933 probably at the worst

So he took over New York City in
1933 probably at the worst
moment, worst point in the

1933 probably at the worst
moment, worst point in the
history of this city.

Moment, worst point in the
history of this city.
Determined to

history of this city.
Determined to
change the course of city

Determined to
change the course of city
government as no mayor before

change the course of city
government as no mayor before
or since, he set right to work.

Government as no mayor before
or since, he set right to work.
Skipping up the steps of city

or since, he set right to work.
Skipping up the steps of city
hall on his first day in office,

Skipping up the steps of city
hall on his first day in office,
he shook his fist at the 122-

hall on his first day in office,
he shook his fist at the 122-
year-old building, roared out in

he shook his fist at the 122-
year-old building, roared out in
Italian, "E finita la

year-old building, roared out in
Italian, "E finita la
cuccagna"... "No more free

Italian, "E finita la
cuccagna"... "No more free
lunch"... then quickly showed he

cuccagna"... "No more free
lunch"... then quickly showed he
meant every word he said.

Lunch"... then quickly showed he
meant every word he said.
In a matter of weeks, La Guardia

meant every word he said.
In a matter of weeks, La Guardia
had begun to dismantle the

In a matter of weeks, La Guardia
had begun to dismantle the
corrupt political machine that

had begun to dismantle the
corrupt political machine that
had run New York for

corrupt political machine that
had run New York for
generations, cutting thousands

had run New York for
generations, cutting thousands
of positions traditionally

generations, cutting thousands
of positions traditionally
reserved for Tammany Hall

of positions traditionally
reserved for Tammany Hall
loyalists and putting in its

reserved for Tammany Hall
loyalists and putting in its
place a new system of scientific

loyalists and putting in its
place a new system of scientific
civil service based on expertise

place a new system of scientific
civil service based on expertise
and merit.

Civil service based on expertise
and merit.
We intend to have

and merit.
We intend to have
a general housecleaning.

We intend to have
a general housecleaning.
Yes.

A general housecleaning.
Yes.
We'll not only clean the streets

Yes.
We'll not only clean the streets
of the city, but I'm going to

We'll not only clean the streets
of the city, but I'm going to
clean every department of every

of the city, but I'm going to
clean every department of every
grafting Tammany politician and

clean every department of every
grafting Tammany politician and
appoint honest men and women in

grafting Tammany politician and
appoint honest men and women in
their places.

Appoint honest men and women in
their places.
And, in fact, here

their places.
And, in fact, here
he was brilliantly effective.

And, in fact, here
he was brilliantly effective.
He was going to be in office for

he was brilliantly effective.
He was going to be in office for
12 years and during that time he

He was going to be in office for
12 years and during that time he
systematically starved Tammany

12 years and during that time he
systematically starved Tammany
of patronage.

Systematically starved Tammany
of patronage.
And this is a crucial moment

of patronage.
And this is a crucial moment
because, in fact, it's the

And this is a crucial moment
because, in fact, it's the
destruction of the Democratic

because, in fact, it's the
destruction of the Democratic
Party machine that was one of

destruction of the Democratic
Party machine that was one of
his biggest goals and those of

Party machine that was one of
his biggest goals and those of
his supporters and, in fact, it

his biggest goals and those of
his supporters and, in fact, it
was successful in Manhattan.

His supporters and, in fact, it
was successful in Manhattan.
He was not without

was successful in Manhattan.
He was not without
his limitations.

He was not without
his limitations.
Theatrical, autocratic, and

his limitations.
Theatrical, autocratic, and
violently short-tempered, he

Theatrical, autocratic, and
violently short-tempered, he
more than once had to be

violently short-tempered, he
more than once had to be
physically restrained from

more than once had to be
physically restrained from
striking other city officials.

Physically restrained from
striking other city officials.
"If you were any dumber," he

striking other city officials.
"If you were any dumber," he
once screamed at a hapless

"If you were any dumber," he
once screamed at a hapless
stenographer, "I'd make you a

once screamed at a hapless
stenographer, "I'd make you a
commissioner."

stenographer, "I'd make you a
commissioner."
But New Yorkers loved him

commissioner."
But New Yorkers loved him
anyway, in part because he threw

But New Yorkers loved him
anyway, in part because he threw
himself into the job with

anyway, in part because he threw
himself into the job with
reckless abandon, racing to

himself into the job with
reckless abandon, racing to
fires in a motorcycle sidecar,

reckless abandon, racing to
fires in a motorcycle sidecar,
accompanying the police on

fires in a motorcycle sidecar,
accompanying the police on
official raids, and once

accompanying the police on
official raids, and once
conducting the city orchestra at

official raids, and once
conducting the city orchestra at
Carnegie Hall, where he insisted

conducting the city orchestra at
Carnegie Hall, where he insisted
on receiving no special

Carnegie Hall, where he insisted
on receiving no special
consideration from the

on receiving no special
consideration from the
musicians.

Consideration from the
musicians.
"Just treat me like Toscanini,"

musicians.
"Just treat me like Toscanini,"
he said.

"Just treat me like Toscanini,"
he said.
He was everywhere.

He said.
He was everywhere.
He was everywhere and he was

He was everywhere.
He was everywhere and he was
distinctive, because he was so

He was everywhere and he was
distinctive, because he was so
animated.

And his qualities were that he
got things done and that he

got things done and that he
related.

- Related.
- He shared

He shared
himself and his soul and his

himself and his soul and his
heart and his emotions, as well

heart and his emotions, as well
as his ability.
He was not afraid to be a human

He was not afraid to be a human
being as a politician.
He was a person of the people.

Being as a politician.
He was a person of the people.
And I have always believed that

He was a person of the people.
And I have always believed that
if you want to really represent

And I have always believed that
if you want to really represent
people, you got to act like a

if you want to really represent
people, you got to act like a
people.

People, you got to act like a
people.
You can't just be something

people.
You can't just be something
above that, and I think La

You can't just be something
above that, and I think La
Guardia understood that.

Above that, and I think La
Guardia understood that.
It's hard to say

Guardia understood that.
It's hard to say
that La Guardia has a single,

It's hard to say
that La Guardia has a single,
unified vision for the city, but

that La Guardia has a single,
unified vision for the city, but
he's certainly got a series of

unified vision for the city, but
he's certainly got a series of
goals.

He's certainly got a series of
goals.
And probably first and foremost

goals.
And probably first and foremost
are the very ones that he ran

And probably first and foremost
are the very ones that he ran
on.

Are the very ones that he ran
on.
One is a war on crime.

On.
One is a war on crime.
He declares an extremely public

One is a war on crime.
He declares an extremely public
war on racketeers, and gamblers

He declares an extremely public
war on racketeers, and gamblers
in particular, and he loves

war on racketeers, and gamblers
in particular, and he loves
going around and collecting slot

in particular, and he loves
going around and collecting slot
machines, taking them out on a

going around and collecting slot
machines, taking them out on a
barge in the harbor, taking his

machines, taking them out on a
barge in the harbor, taking his
ax and, you know, chopping them,

barge in the harbor, taking his
ax and, you know, chopping them,
and then throwing them

ax and, you know, chopping them,
and then throwing them
overboard.

And then throwing them
overboard.
Or rounding up guns.

Overboard.
Or rounding up guns.
And he's very, very conscious of

Or rounding up guns.
And he's very, very conscious of
media and he's got the newsreels

And he's very, very conscious of
media and he's got the newsreels
there and he's got the radio

media and he's got the newsreels
there and he's got the radio
there.

There and he's got the radio
there.
He's very public, symbolic, you

there.
He's very public, symbolic, you
know, acting out clearly on the

He's very public, symbolic, you
know, acting out clearly on the
stage.

Know, acting out clearly on the
stage.
He races around in police cars.

Stage.
He races around in police cars.
He appoints good, tough, honest

He races around in police cars.
He appoints good, tough, honest
cops, you know, like Valentine.

He appoints good, tough, honest
cops, you know, like Valentine.
The people who had been shunted

cops, you know, like Valentine.
The people who had been shunted
aside under the Tammany regime

The people who had been shunted
aside under the Tammany regime
are now running the show.

Aside under the Tammany regime
are now running the show.
We're giving them

are now running the show.
We're giving them
no quarter.

We're giving them
no quarter.
But the man whom

no quarter.
But the man whom
the newspapers called "the

But the man whom
the newspapers called "the
little flower" had even higher

the newspapers called "the
little flower" had even higher
ambitions.

Little flower" had even higher
ambitions.
Even as the city lay sunk in the

ambitions.
Even as the city lay sunk in the
depths of the worst depression

Even as the city lay sunk in the
depths of the worst depression
in American history, he dreamed

depths of the worst depression
in American history, he dreamed
of transforming it into the most

in American history, he dreamed
of transforming it into the most
progressive and modern

of transforming it into the most
progressive and modern
metropolis in the world... of

progressive and modern
metropolis in the world... of
rebuilding its tattered physical

metropolis in the world... of
rebuilding its tattered physical
infrastructure, ruined by 15

rebuilding its tattered physical
infrastructure, ruined by 15
years of looting and neglect,

infrastructure, ruined by 15
years of looting and neglect,
through a series of massive

years of looting and neglect,
through a series of massive
public programs and public works

through a series of massive
public programs and public works
that would put tens of thousands

public programs and public works
that would put tens of thousands
of men and women back to work

that would put tens of thousands
of men and women back to work
and rebuild the pride and self-

of men and women back to work
and rebuild the pride and self-
respect of the city and its

and rebuild the pride and self-
respect of the city and its
people.

Respect of the city and its
people.
"I shall not rest," he declared,

people.
"I shall not rest," he declared,
"until my native city is first

"I shall not rest," he declared,
"until my native city is first
not only in population, but also

"until my native city is first
not only in population, but also
in wholesome housing; not only

not only in population, but also
in wholesome housing; not only
in commerce, but also in public

in wholesome housing; not only
in commerce, but also in public
health; until it is not only out

in commerce, but also in public
health; until it is not only out
of debt, but abounding in

health; until it is not only out
of debt, but abounding in
happiness."

of debt, but abounding in
happiness."
But the fact is that

happiness."
But the fact is that
when La Guardia takes power, he

But the fact is that
when La Guardia takes power, he
is up against the wall and he's

when La Guardia takes power, he
is up against the wall and he's
got extremely limited

is up against the wall and he's
got extremely limited
parameters.

Got extremely limited
parameters.
The consortium of bankers who

parameters.
The consortium of bankers who
had been loaning the city money

The consortium of bankers who
had been loaning the city money
are in essence saying, "Listen,

had been loaning the city money
are in essence saying, "Listen,
La Guardia, we're going to cut

are in essence saying, "Listen,
La Guardia, we're going to cut
you off without a dime; we're

La Guardia, we're going to cut
you off without a dime; we're
going to demand our money back,

you off without a dime; we're
going to demand our money back,
unless you take a series of

going to demand our money back,
unless you take a series of
measures."

unless you take a series of
measures."
And those measures are,

measures."
And those measures are,
basically, cut public services

And those measures are,
basically, cut public services
and concentrate on paying back

basically, cut public services
and concentrate on paying back
what you owe the banks.

And concentrate on paying back
what you owe the banks.
Now, La Guardia actually does

what you owe the banks.
Now, La Guardia actually does
carry some of this out and we

Now, La Guardia actually does
carry some of this out and we
tend to forget this.

Carry some of this out and we
tend to forget this.
There were mass layoffs of city

tend to forget this.
There were mass layoffs of city
workers and such.

There were mass layoffs of city
workers and such.
That was part of him.

Workers and such.
That was part of him.
He was, in fact, a business-

That was part of him.
He was, in fact, a business-
oriented reformer.

He was, in fact, a business-
oriented reformer.
And yet, in very short order, La

oriented reformer.
And yet, in very short order, La
Guardia is in a position to tell

And yet, in very short order, La
Guardia is in a position to tell
the bankers to take a hike.

Guardia is in a position to tell
the bankers to take a hike.
And not only does he not

the bankers to take a hike.
And not only does he not
continue to shrivel municipal

And not only does he not
continue to shrivel municipal
government and public programs,

continue to shrivel municipal
government and public programs,
but he presides over the

government and public programs,
but he presides over the
greatest expansion of government

but he presides over the
greatest expansion of government
programs and public services in

greatest expansion of government
programs and public services in
the history of the city.

Programs and public services in
the history of the city.
The extraordinary

the history of the city.
The extraordinary
revolution that would make that

The extraordinary
revolution that would make that
possible would issue from an

revolution that would make that
possible would issue from an
unprecedented convergence of

possible would issue from an
unprecedented convergence of
local and national forces, a

unprecedented convergence of
local and national forces, a
unique alliance of personalities

local and national forces, a
unique alliance of personalities
and events, and represent, in

unique alliance of personalities
and events, and represent, in
the end, the greatest single sea

and events, and represent, in
the end, the greatest single sea
change in American government

the end, the greatest single sea
change in American government
since the early days of the

change in American government
since the early days of the
republic.

Since the early days of the
republic.
It was called the New Deal and

republic.
It was called the New Deal and
in many ways it would mark the

It was called the New Deal and
in many ways it would mark the
very zenith of New York City's

in many ways it would mark the
very zenith of New York City's
influence over American life.

Very zenith of New York City's
influence over American life.
And the key to

influence over American life.
And the key to
understanding La Guardia and the

And the key to
understanding La Guardia and the
successes of his

understanding La Guardia and the
successes of his
administration... and for that

successes of his
administration... and for that
matter, the role of Robert

administration... and for that
matter, the role of Robert
Moses... is to understand the New

matter, the role of Robert
Moses... is to understand the New
Deal.

Moses... is to understand the New
Deal.
For me, the most fascinating

Deal.
For me, the most fascinating
thing about the New Deal is that

For me, the most fascinating
thing about the New Deal is that
it is in large measure

thing about the New Deal is that
it is in large measure
constructed in New York City;

it is in large measure
constructed in New York City;
that when Franklin Roosevelt

constructed in New York City;
that when Franklin Roosevelt
goes to Washington, he's not

that when Franklin Roosevelt
goes to Washington, he's not
going alone.

Goes to Washington, he's not
going alone.
He is going with a set of ideas

going alone.
He is going with a set of ideas
and experiences which he has

He is going with a set of ideas
and experiences which he has
gleaned by working in New York

and experiences which he has
gleaned by working in New York
City and New York State politics

gleaned by working in New York
City and New York State politics
for the previous decades, and he

City and New York State politics
for the previous decades, and he
is going with a platoon of New

for the previous decades, and he
is going with a platoon of New
Yorkers from various aspects of

is going with a platoon of New
Yorkers from various aspects of
New York life who also have got

Yorkers from various aspects of
New York life who also have got
programs, who have got ideas

New York life who also have got
programs, who have got ideas
which have been tested and

programs, who have got ideas
which have been tested and
worked out on the streets of New

which have been tested and
worked out on the streets of New
York City.

Worked out on the streets of New
York City.
In essence, I would argue that

York City.
In essence, I would argue that
what happens in '32 and '33 is

In essence, I would argue that
what happens in '32 and '33 is
that New York invades

what happens in '32 and '33 is
that New York invades
Washington.

That New York invades
Washington.
New York boards and seizes

Washington.
New York boards and seizes
Washington, but instead of

New York boards and seizes
Washington, but instead of
treating it as a conquered

Washington, but instead of
treating it as a conquered
country, what they do is say,

treating it as a conquered
country, what they do is say,
"Washington has got to do what

country, what they do is say,
"Washington has got to do what
New York City has been doing for

"Washington has got to do what
New York City has been doing for
all these years and do it on a

New York City has been doing for
all these years and do it on a
colossal new scale with the

all these years and do it on a
colossal new scale with the
resources that only the federal

colossal new scale with the
resources that only the federal
state can command.

Resources that only the federal
state can command.
It must intervene in the

state can command.
It must intervene in the
workings of the economy.

It must intervene in the
workings of the economy.
It must not, in fact, just sit

workings of the economy.
It must not, in fact, just sit
back and be laissez-faire in its

It must not, in fact, just sit
back and be laissez-faire in its
attitude.

Back and be laissez-faire in its
attitude.
It must seize the moment and

attitude.
It must seize the moment and
operate on a very different set

It must seize the moment and
operate on a very different set
of parameters than the previous

operate on a very different set
of parameters than the previous
administration."

of parameters than the previous
administration."
When you look at the New Deal,

administration."
When you look at the New Deal,
there are a lot of people from

When you look at the New Deal,
there are a lot of people from
around the country who are

there are a lot of people from
around the country who are
players.

Around the country who are
players.
But who's sitting at Roosevelt's

players.
But who's sitting at Roosevelt's
right hand?

But who's sitting at Roosevelt's
right hand?
It's Harry Hopkins, who comes up

right hand?
It's Harry Hopkins, who comes up
through the social work and the

It's Harry Hopkins, who comes up
through the social work and the
welfare bureaucracy in New York

through the social work and the
welfare bureaucracy in New York
City and is the guy who is

welfare bureaucracy in New York
City and is the guy who is
sitting there and, you know,

City and is the guy who is
sitting there and, you know,
starts signing zillions of

sitting there and, you know,
starts signing zillions of
dollars worth of checks.

Starts signing zillions of
dollars worth of checks.
On his left hand is Eleanor, who

dollars worth of checks.
On his left hand is Eleanor, who
is, in fact, plugged into the

On his left hand is Eleanor, who
is, in fact, plugged into the
Settlement House Movement and a

is, in fact, plugged into the
Settlement House Movement and a
whole network of labor

Settlement House Movement and a
whole network of labor
reformers.

Whole network of labor
reformers.
There's Frances Perkins, who is

reformers.
There's Frances Perkins, who is
going to be his secretary of

There's Frances Perkins, who is
going to be his secretary of
labor.

Going to be his secretary of
labor.
She was back in the Triangle

labor.
She was back in the Triangle
fire days.

She was back in the Triangle
fire days.
She's, in fact, continuing and

fire days.
She's, in fact, continuing and
applying lessons that were

She's, in fact, continuing and
applying lessons that were
learned in that period on a

applying lessons that were
learned in that period on a
national level.

Learned in that period on a
national level.
The list just goes on and on and

national level.
The list just goes on and on and
on.

The list just goes on and on and
on.
There's this squadron of New

on.
There's this squadron of New
Yorkers who are installed in

There's this squadron of New
Yorkers who are installed in
high places and begin to promote

Yorkers who are installed in
high places and begin to promote
New York City programs.

High places and begin to promote
New York City programs.
The seismic changes

New York City programs.
The seismic changes
wrought by the New Deal would

The seismic changes
wrought by the New Deal would
reverberate for the rest of the

wrought by the New Deal would
reverberate for the rest of the
century, as billions of dollars

reverberate for the rest of the
century, as billions of dollars
in federal aid were soon pouring

century, as billions of dollars
in federal aid were soon pouring
out of Washington, affecting

in federal aid were soon pouring
out of Washington, affecting
every aspect of American life.

Out of Washington, affecting
every aspect of American life.
There were funds for

every aspect of American life.
There were funds for
unemployment relief, for long-

There were funds for
unemployment relief, for long-
term initiatives in health and

unemployment relief, for long-
term initiatives in health and
social security, for public

term initiatives in health and
social security, for public
housing and labor reform, and

social security, for public
housing and labor reform, and
most surprisingly of all in the

housing and labor reform, and
most surprisingly of all in the
darkest hour of the depression,

most surprisingly of all in the
darkest hour of the depression,
for the kind of large-scale

darkest hour of the depression,
for the kind of large-scale
public works that Fiorello La

for the kind of large-scale
public works that Fiorello La
Guardia had made the centerpiece

public works that Fiorello La
Guardia had made the centerpiece
of his vision of a transformed

Guardia had made the centerpiece
of his vision of a transformed
metropolis.

Of his vision of a transformed
metropolis.
For better or

metropolis.
For better or
worse, it completely transformed

For better or
worse, it completely transformed
the way people view government

worse, it completely transformed
the way people view government
and government's role in

the way people view government
and government's role in
people's lives.

And government's role in
people's lives.
Before the New Deal, it didn't

people's lives.
Before the New Deal, it didn't
occur to most people that

Before the New Deal, it didn't
occur to most people that
government had any obligation to

occur to most people that
government had any obligation to
its citizenry beyond the basics

government had any obligation to
its citizenry beyond the basics
of military support and security

its citizenry beyond the basics
of military support and security
and things like that.

Of military support and security
and things like that.
But the idea that government had

and things like that.
But the idea that government had
a responsibility to intervene

But the idea that government had
a responsibility to intervene
economically, to provide

a responsibility to intervene
economically, to provide
employment when necessary, to

economically, to provide
employment when necessary, to
keep people from starving even,

employment when necessary, to
keep people from starving even,
this was simply not understood.

Keep people from starving even,
this was simply not understood.
Social Security... something

this was simply not understood.
Social Security... something
that's now sacrosanct in many

Social Security... something
that's now sacrosanct in many
ways... was a novel idea, that

that's now sacrosanct in many
ways... was a novel idea, that
people should actually enjoy

ways... was a novel idea, that
people should actually enjoy
security and that government was

people should actually enjoy
security and that government was
obliged to provide it.

Security and that government was
obliged to provide it.
It changes the nature of the

obliged to provide it.
It changes the nature of the
relationship between citizens

It changes the nature of the
relationship between citizens
and government.

Relationship between citizens
and government.
And yet, the

and government.
And yet, the
tremendous irony is, is that

And yet, the
tremendous irony is, is that
while in the short term the New

tremendous irony is, is that
while in the short term the New
Deal programs are going to be

while in the short term the New
Deal programs are going to be
the salvation of New York City,

Deal programs are going to be
the salvation of New York City,
because Washington comes out of

the salvation of New York City,
because Washington comes out of
this enormously strengthened,

because Washington comes out of
this enormously strengthened,
New York, which had been the

this enormously strengthened,
New York, which had been the
unofficial capital and the

New York, which had been the
unofficial capital and the
financial capital and the

unofficial capital and the
financial capital and the
cultural capital and the

financial capital and the
cultural capital and the
marketing capital, has now got a

cultural capital and the
marketing capital, has now got a
rival in a major-league way that

marketing capital, has now got a
rival in a major-league way that
it had never had before.

Rival in a major-league way that
it had never had before.
And suddenly, you know, it's not

it had never had before.
And suddenly, you know, it's not
the center of the country.

And suddenly, you know, it's not
the center of the country.
It's just another city, and a

the center of the country.
It's just another city, and a
very hard-pressed city, and it's

It's just another city, and a
very hard-pressed city, and it's
dependent upon federal transfer.

Very hard-pressed city, and it's
dependent upon federal transfer.
And Washington is going to apply

dependent upon federal transfer.
And Washington is going to apply
the same New Deal tactics and

And Washington is going to apply
the same New Deal tactics and
strategies out West, where

the same New Deal tactics and
strategies out West, where
they're going to build huge

strategies out West, where
they're going to build huge
public-works projects... you

they're going to build huge
public-works projects... you
know, dams, electrification

public-works projects... you
know, dams, electrification
systems, water supply... which is

know, dams, electrification
systems, water supply... which is
very largely going to be drawing

systems, water supply... which is
very largely going to be drawing
upon money garnered from the

very largely going to be drawing
upon money garnered from the
Northeast, and New York in

upon money garnered from the
Northeast, and New York in
particular, to develop what's

Northeast, and New York in
particular, to develop what's
going to emerge a little bit

particular, to develop what's
going to emerge a little bit
down the road as a sunbelt

going to emerge a little bit
down the road as a sunbelt
competitor to New York City's

down the road as a sunbelt
competitor to New York City's
economic primacy.

Competitor to New York City's
economic primacy.
And it's going to do the same

economic primacy.
And it's going to do the same
thing in the South.

And it's going to do the same
thing in the South.
The New Deal, courtesy very

thing in the South.
The New Deal, courtesy very
largely of New Yorkers, is, in

The New Deal, courtesy very
largely of New Yorkers, is, in
fact, going to equalize

largely of New Yorkers, is, in
fact, going to equalize
relations between the regions,

fact, going to equalize
relations between the regions,
but it is going to transform

relations between the regions,
but it is going to transform
forevermore New York City's

but it is going to transform
forevermore New York City's
centrality that was

forevermore New York City's
centrality that was
characteristic of it up 'til

centrality that was
characteristic of it up 'til
that period.

Characteristic of it up 'til
that period.
The full effects of

that period.
The full effects of
that epic transformation would

The full effects of
that epic transformation would
not be felt for decades to come.

That epic transformation would
not be felt for decades to come.
In the meantime, no mayor in the

not be felt for decades to come.
In the meantime, no mayor in the
country saw more clearly the

In the meantime, no mayor in the
country saw more clearly the
potential of the New Deal than

country saw more clearly the
potential of the New Deal than
Fiorello La Guardia.

Potential of the New Deal than
Fiorello La Guardia.
Pioneering the use of the

Fiorello La Guardia.
Pioneering the use of the
airplane in government, the

Pioneering the use of the
airplane in government, the
indefatigable mayor, who liked

airplane in government, the
indefatigable mayor, who liked
to be addressed by his old Army

indefatigable mayor, who liked
to be addressed by his old Army
Air Corps rank of major, was

to be addressed by his old Army
Air Corps rank of major, was
soon flying down to Washington

Air Corps rank of major, was
soon flying down to Washington
early in the morning, returning

soon flying down to Washington
early in the morning, returning
to New York by late afternoon

early in the morning, returning
to New York by late afternoon
with the promise of new federal

to New York by late afternoon
with the promise of new federal
aid in hand, thanks to his

with the promise of new federal
aid in hand, thanks to his
immense personal charm, his

aid in hand, thanks to his
immense personal charm, his
reputation for incorruptibility,

immense personal charm, his
reputation for incorruptibility,
and his close personal ties to

reputation for incorruptibility,
and his close personal ties to
Franklin Roosevelt.

And his close personal ties to
Franklin Roosevelt.
"Our mayor is the

Franklin Roosevelt.
"Our mayor is the
most appealing man I know.

"Our mayor is the
most appealing man I know.
He comes to Washington and tells

most appealing man I know.
He comes to Washington and tells
me a sad story.

He comes to Washington and tells
me a sad story.
The tears run down my cheeks and

me a sad story.
The tears run down my cheeks and
the tears run down his cheeks.

The tears run down my cheeks and
the tears run down his cheeks.
And the first thing I know, he

the tears run down his cheeks.
And the first thing I know, he
has wangled another $50 million

And the first thing I know, he
has wangled another $50 million
out of me."

has wangled another $50 million
out of me."
Franklin Delano Roosevelt.

Out of me."
Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
Fiorello La Guardia

Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
Fiorello La Guardia
is, you know, like this with

Fiorello La Guardia
is, you know, like this with
Franklin Roosevelt.

Is, you know, like this with
Franklin Roosevelt.
That's the critical connection.

Franklin Roosevelt.
That's the critical connection.
And money, billions of dollars

That's the critical connection.
And money, billions of dollars
flow into a vast series of

And money, billions of dollars
flow into a vast series of
public-works programs that build

flow into a vast series of
public-works programs that build
things that are socially useful.

Public-works programs that build
things that are socially useful.
They build highways, they build

things that are socially useful.
They build highways, they build
airports, they build hospitals,

They build highways, they build
airports, they build hospitals,
they build schools, they build

airports, they build hospitals,
they build schools, they build
colleges, they build, you know,

they build schools, they build
colleges, they build, you know,
health centers... a vast panoply

colleges, they build, you know,
health centers... a vast panoply
of expansion of things.

Health centers... a vast panoply
of expansion of things.
Before it was over,

of expansion of things.
Before it was over,
the unlikely alliance between

Before it was over,
the unlikely alliance between
the patrician president and the

the unlikely alliance between
the patrician president and the
diminutive, populist mayor, whom

the patrician president and the
diminutive, populist mayor, whom
one man called, "a lowercase

diminutive, populist mayor, whom
one man called, "a lowercase
Franklin Roosevelt," would turn

one man called, "a lowercase
Franklin Roosevelt," would turn
New York City into a showcase

Franklin Roosevelt," would turn
New York City into a showcase
for the New Deal.

New York City into a showcase
for the New Deal.
In the darkest hours of the

for the New Deal.
In the darkest hours of the
depression, Fiorello La Guardia

In the darkest hours of the
depression, Fiorello La Guardia
would have the resources he

depression, Fiorello La Guardia
would have the resources he
would need to turn New York into

would have the resources he
would need to turn New York into
what he called, "a gigantic

would need to turn New York into
what he called, "a gigantic
laboratory of civic

what he called, "a gigantic
laboratory of civic
reconstruction."

laboratory of civic
reconstruction."
All he needed was someone who

reconstruction."
All he needed was someone who
knew how to use them, and within

All he needed was someone who
knew how to use them, and within
days of his inauguration on

knew how to use them, and within
days of his inauguration on
January 1, 1934, he had turned

days of his inauguration on
January 1, 1934, he had turned
to a man already universally

January 1, 1934, he had turned
to a man already universally
known in New York as the man who

to a man already universally
known in New York as the man who
could get things done.

Known in New York as the man who
could get things done.
His name was Robert Moses, the

could get things done.
His name was Robert Moses, the
greatest builder of public works

His name was Robert Moses, the
greatest builder of public works
the city would ever see.

Greatest builder of public works
the city would ever see.
And long after he had left the

the city would ever see.
And long after he had left the
public stage, people would still

And long after he had left the
public stage, people would still
be debating the meaning and

public stage, people would still
be debating the meaning and
consequences of his

be debating the meaning and
consequences of his
extraordinary career.

Consequences of his
extraordinary career.
Robert Moses was the

extraordinary career.
Robert Moses was the
single most important figure to

Robert Moses was the
single most important figure to
emerge in New York City in the

single most important figure to
emerge in New York City in the
20th century.

Emerge in New York City in the
20th century.
He was a unique figure.

20th century.
He was a unique figure.
Not only is there no counterpart

He was a unique figure.
Not only is there no counterpart
in New York City to Robert

Not only is there no counterpart
in New York City to Robert
Moses, neither is there any

in New York City to Robert
Moses, neither is there any
counterpart to Robert Moses in

Moses, neither is there any
counterpart to Robert Moses in
Chicago or Los Angeles or

counterpart to Robert Moses in
Chicago or Los Angeles or
Houston... one person who single-

Chicago or Los Angeles or
Houston... one person who single-
handedly, over a period of

Houston... one person who single-
handedly, over a period of
almost half a century, reshapes

handedly, over a period of
almost half a century, reshapes
a great metropolis.

Almost half a century, reshapes
a great metropolis.
In a democracy, you

a great metropolis.
In a democracy, you
think of power in four-year

In a democracy, you
think of power in four-year
terms or eight years or 12-year

think of power in four-year
terms or eight years or 12-year
spans.

Terms or eight years or 12-year
spans.
Robert Moses held power for

spans.
Robert Moses held power for
almost half a century.

Robert Moses held power for
almost half a century.
And with this power, he shaped

almost half a century.
And with this power, he shaped
New York, not for a term or not

And with this power, he shaped
New York, not for a term or not
for a decade and not for a

New York, not for a term or not
for a decade and not for a
generation, but for almost half

for a decade and not for a
generation, but for almost half
a century.

Generation, but for almost half
a century.
When you talk about New York in

a century.
When you talk about New York in
the 20th century, the story of

When you talk about New York in
the 20th century, the story of
New York is inseparable from the

the 20th century, the story of
New York is inseparable from the
story of Robert Moses.

New York is inseparable from the
story of Robert Moses.
To an astonishing extent they

story of Robert Moses.
To an astonishing extent they
are one and the same.

To an astonishing extent they
are one and the same.
What Robert Moses

are one and the same.
What Robert Moses
did that had to be done was to

What Robert Moses
did that had to be done was to
adapt really a 19th-century city

did that had to be done was to
adapt really a 19th-century city
for 20th-century circumstances.

Adapt really a 19th-century city
for 20th-century circumstances.
He was swimming with the tide of

for 20th-century circumstances.
He was swimming with the tide of
history.

He was swimming with the tide of
history.
The American people had

history.
The American people had
essentially voted with their

The American people had
essentially voted with their
pocketbooks and with their minds

essentially voted with their
pocketbooks and with their minds
in favor of a more spread-out

pocketbooks and with their minds
in favor of a more spread-out
environment, one that was based

in favor of a more spread-out
environment, one that was based
really on automobile

environment, one that was based
really on automobile
transportation.

Really on automobile
transportation.
Robert Moses took that idea and

transportation.
Robert Moses took that idea and
ran with it like no one else in

Robert Moses took that idea and
ran with it like no one else in
American history.

Ran with it like no one else in
American history.
Of course there are

American history.
Of course there are
great historical forces which

Of course there are
great historical forces which
make things the way they are and

great historical forces which
make things the way they are and
to an extent every individual is

make things the way they are and
to an extent every individual is
subject to them, but there are

to an extent every individual is
subject to them, but there are
some individuals who ride the

subject to them, but there are
some individuals who ride the
crest of the social forces and

some individuals who ride the
crest of the social forces and
turn them in their direction.

Crest of the social forces and
turn them in their direction.
Moses was that kind of a person

turn them in their direction.
Moses was that kind of a person
because of his personality, the

Moses was that kind of a person
because of his personality, the
scope of his vision, his energy.

Because of his personality, the
scope of his vision, his energy.
And he had an intensity of

scope of his vision, his energy.
And he had an intensity of
purpose, I mean, a savage will

And he had an intensity of
purpose, I mean, a savage will
that he's going to get this

purpose, I mean, a savage will
that he's going to get this
done, you know?

That he's going to get this
done, you know?
His saying that "I'll hit them

done, you know?
His saying that "I'll hit them
with a meat ax"... and the meat

His saying that "I'll hit them
with a meat ax"... and the meat
ax could be anything he had to

with a meat ax"... and the meat
ax could be anything he had to
do to get his end accomplished.

Ax could be anything he had to
do to get his end accomplished.
He certainly did some

do to get his end accomplished.
He certainly did some
terrible things and tried to do

He certainly did some
terrible things and tried to do
some terrible things that he

terrible things and tried to do
some terrible things that he
fortunately did not get away

some terrible things that he
fortunately did not get away
with.

Fortunately did not get away
with.
And I think the key to

with.
And I think the key to
understanding Robert Moses is

And I think the key to
understanding Robert Moses is
that he didn't care about

understanding Robert Moses is
that he didn't care about
people.

That he didn't care about
people.
He passionately cared about

people.
He passionately cared about
automobiles and moving them.

He passionately cared about
automobiles and moving them.
Sophocles said, "One

automobiles and moving them.
Sophocles said, "One
must wait until the evening to

Sophocles said, "One
must wait until the evening to
see how splendid the day has

must wait until the evening to
see how splendid the day has
been."

see how splendid the day has
been."
When you look at what Moses

been."
When you look at what Moses
wrought, you say these are some

When you look at what Moses
wrought, you say these are some
of the greatest creations of

wrought, you say these are some
of the greatest creations of
man.

Of the greatest creations of
man.
But what did they create?

Man.
But what did they create?
What kind of a city did he leave

But what did they create?
What kind of a city did he leave
behind?

What kind of a city did he leave
behind?
He had begun his

behind?
He had begun his
career, one man later said, "as

He had begun his
career, one man later said, "as
the very flower of New York's

career, one man later said, "as
the very flower of New York's
reform movement," the fiercely

the very flower of New York's
reform movement," the fiercely
driven second son of wealthy

reform movement," the fiercely
driven second son of wealthy
German Jews, fired by the ideals

driven second son of wealthy
German Jews, fired by the ideals
of the progressive age and the

German Jews, fired by the ideals
of the progressive age and the
dream of public service.

Of the progressive age and the
dream of public service.
Coming of age as the era of

dream of public service.
Coming of age as the era of
horse and rail gave way to the

Coming of age as the era of
horse and rail gave way to the
era of the motorcar, from

horse and rail gave way to the
era of the motorcar, from
beginning to end, the story of

era of the motorcar, from
beginning to end, the story of
his life would be bound up with

beginning to end, the story of
his life would be bound up with
the automobile and its fateful

his life would be bound up with
the automobile and its fateful
impact on the life of American

the automobile and its fateful
impact on the life of American
cities.

Impact on the life of American
cities.
At the turn of the

cities.
At the turn of the
century, what at first appeared

At the turn of the
century, what at first appeared
to be a harmless little toy

century, what at first appeared
to be a harmless little toy
began puttering around on the

to be a harmless little toy
began puttering around on the
streets of the city, and it

began puttering around on the
streets of the city, and it
wasn't a harmless little toy.

Streets of the city, and it
wasn't a harmless little toy.
It was, in fact, the agent of

wasn't a harmless little toy.
It was, in fact, the agent of
dissolution which was about,

It was, in fact, the agent of
dissolution which was about,
over the next 20 or 30 years, to

dissolution which was about,
over the next 20 or 30 years, to
unravel and to decentralize this

over the next 20 or 30 years, to
unravel and to decentralize this
tremendously integrated rail-

unravel and to decentralize this
tremendously integrated rail-
based system that had been

tremendously integrated rail-
based system that had been
constructed.

Based system that had been
constructed.
Nobody took it seriously at

constructed.
Nobody took it seriously at
first because, in fact, it was a

Nobody took it seriously at
first because, in fact, it was a
toy and it was a rich man's toy.

First because, in fact, it was a
toy and it was a rich man's toy.
No great surprise, these early

toy and it was a rich man's toy.
No great surprise, these early
machines were expensive and you

No great surprise, these early
machines were expensive and you
had to have a chauffeur.

Machines were expensive and you
had to have a chauffeur.
And they were very fragile, so

had to have a chauffeur.
And they were very fragile, so
you needed an indoor garage.

And they were very fragile, so
you needed an indoor garage.
So it's not a surprise that of

you needed an indoor garage.
So it's not a surprise that of
the... around 1900, the 8,000

So it's not a surprise that of
the... around 1900, the 8,000
cars that existed in the U.S.,

the... around 1900, the 8,000
cars that existed in the U.S.,
the clear majority of them were

cars that existed in the U.S.,
the clear majority of them were
owned in New York City and they

the clear majority of them were
owned in New York City and they
were owned in gross lots.

Owned in New York City and they
were owned in gross lots.
John Jacob Astor had 32.

Were owned in gross lots.
John Jacob Astor had 32.
One summer day in 1901, two-

John Jacob Astor had 32.
One summer day in 1901, two-
year-old Louie Camille was

One summer day in 1901, two-
year-old Louie Camille was
playing out on Lower East Side

year-old Louie Camille was
playing out on Lower East Side
streets, son of Italian

playing out on Lower East Side
streets, son of Italian
immigrant parents, and he was

streets, son of Italian
immigrant parents, and he was
run over by an automobile driven

immigrant parents, and he was
run over by an automobile driven
by a chauffeur who was taking

run over by an automobile driven
by a chauffeur who was taking
two Wall Street businessmen down

by a chauffeur who was taking
two Wall Street businessmen down
to their office.

Two Wall Street businessmen down
to their office.
A huge crowd formed up and

to their office.
A huge crowd formed up and
nearly, in fact, lynched all of

A huge crowd formed up and
nearly, in fact, lynched all of
the occupants of the car.

Nearly, in fact, lynched all of
the occupants of the car.
This was the first critical

the occupants of the car.
This was the first critical
clash.

This was the first critical
clash.
The streets were playgrounds for

clash.
The streets were playgrounds for
the working-class poor, and the

The streets were playgrounds for
the working-class poor, and the
car is making a competing claim

the working-class poor, and the
car is making a competing claim
for rights of access to this

car is making a competing claim
for rights of access to this
place, and it makes it with

for rights of access to this
place, and it makes it with
brute force.

Place, and it makes it with
brute force.
Henry Ford changes the equation.

Brute force.
Henry Ford changes the equation.
By mass-producing autos, he's

Henry Ford changes the equation.
By mass-producing autos, he's
churning out the Model T.

By mass-producing autos, he's
churning out the Model T.
Flivvers are dropping in price.

Churning out the Model T.
Flivvers are dropping in price.
They're within access range now

Flivvers are dropping in price.
They're within access range now
of a much larger middle class.

They're within access range now
of a much larger middle class.
They're no longer exclusively

of a much larger middle class.
They're no longer exclusively
toys for the rich.

They're no longer exclusively
toys for the rich.
The number of car ownership

toys for the rich.
The number of car ownership
begins to soar throughout the

The number of car ownership
begins to soar throughout the
country, but in New York City in

begins to soar throughout the
country, but in New York City in
particular.

Country, but in New York City in
particular.
They triple between 1915 and

particular.
They triple between 1915 and
1920.

They triple between 1915 and
1920.
But it's nothing compared to

1920.
But it's nothing compared to
what happens in the '20s.

But it's nothing compared to
what happens in the '20s.
The '20s, in fact, is when the

what happens in the '20s.
The '20s, in fact, is when the
automobile explodes.

The '20s, in fact, is when the
automobile explodes.
It's not just the spectacular

automobile explodes.
It's not just the spectacular
presence of these things in

It's not just the spectacular
presence of these things in
terms of the sheer number of

presence of these things in
terms of the sheer number of
people who are now driving them;

terms of the sheer number of
people who are now driving them;
it is the way the cities begin

people who are now driving them;
it is the way the cities begin
to be remade to suit the needs

it is the way the cities begin
to be remade to suit the needs
and convenience of automobilers.

To be remade to suit the needs
and convenience of automobilers.
Convinced that the

and convenience of automobilers.
Convinced that the
future of American life lay with

Convinced that the
future of American life lay with
the automobile, Robert Moses was

future of American life lay with
the automobile, Robert Moses was
among the first to sense that

the automobile, Robert Moses was
among the first to sense that
cities themselves would have to

among the first to sense that
cities themselves would have to
be dramatically rebuilt to

cities themselves would have to
be dramatically rebuilt to
accommodate the reality of the

be dramatically rebuilt to
accommodate the reality of the
motorcar.

Accommodate the reality of the
motorcar.
Appointed by Governor Al Smith

motorcar.
Appointed by Governor Al Smith
in the boom years of the 1920s

Appointed by Governor Al Smith
in the boom years of the 1920s
to reorganize New York state

in the boom years of the 1920s
to reorganize New York state
government, he soon began to

to reorganize New York state
government, he soon began to
conceive of a revolutionary

government, he soon began to
conceive of a revolutionary
project of his own, a sweeping

conceive of a revolutionary
project of his own, a sweeping
network of limited-access

project of his own, a sweeping
network of limited-access
roadways, the first of their

network of limited-access
roadways, the first of their
kind in the world, leading out

roadways, the first of their
kind in the world, leading out
to a vast system of public parks

kind in the world, leading out
to a vast system of public parks
and beaches that would open the

to a vast system of public parks
and beaches that would open the
hinterlands of Long Island to

and beaches that would open the
hinterlands of Long Island to
millions of New Yorkers starved

hinterlands of Long Island to
millions of New Yorkers starved
for open spaces and begin to

millions of New Yorkers starved
for open spaces and begin to
fulfill the promise of the

for open spaces and begin to
fulfill the promise of the
automotive age.

Fulfill the promise of the
automotive age.
Nothing on a scale like

automotive age.
Nothing on a scale like
this had ever been conceived of.

Nothing on a scale like
this had ever been conceived of.
He wanted people to drive to

this had ever been conceived of.
He wanted people to drive to
beauty, to a park, through a

He wanted people to drive to
beauty, to a park, through a
park.

Beauty, to a park, through a
park.
He called them ribbon parks and

park.
He called them ribbon parks and
every aspect of them was going

He called them ribbon parks and
every aspect of them was going
to be beautiful.

Every aspect of them was going
to be beautiful.
On April 18, 1924,

to be beautiful.
On April 18, 1924,
Smith put Moses in charge of

On April 18, 1924,
Smith put Moses in charge of
what was now officially called

Smith put Moses in charge of
what was now officially called
the Long Island State Park

what was now officially called
the Long Island State Park
Commission.

The Long Island State Park
Commission.
After decades of dreaming, he

Commission.
After decades of dreaming, he
would finally get a chance to

After decades of dreaming, he
would finally get a chance to
build.

Would finally get a chance to
build.
And build he did, with a single-

build.
And build he did, with a single-
minded drive and ferocity that

And build he did, with a single-
minded drive and ferocity that
stunned everyone who came in

minded drive and ferocity that
stunned everyone who came in
contact with him, riding

stunned everyone who came in
contact with him, riding
roughshod over long-entrenched

contact with him, riding
roughshod over long-entrenched
interests, bullying private

roughshod over long-entrenched
interests, bullying private
landowners and millionaires,

interests, bullying private
landowners and millionaires,
and, when necessary, swaying

landowners and millionaires,
and, when necessary, swaying
local political bosses by

and, when necessary, swaying
local political bosses by
offering inside information on

local political bosses by
offering inside information on
the layout of his proposed

offering inside information on
the layout of his proposed
roadways.

The layout of his proposed
roadways.
You could

roadways.
You could
say that the city was part of a

You could
say that the city was part of a
larger continuity, that it was

say that the city was part of a
larger continuity, that it was
part of a flow, and cars became

larger continuity, that it was
part of a flow, and cars became
an essential metaphor for him

part of a flow, and cars became
an essential metaphor for him
and the flow of traffic as

an essential metaphor for him
and the flow of traffic as
opening up a new possibility for

and the flow of traffic as
opening up a new possibility for
cities.

Opening up a new possibility for
cities.
Maybe you could see him saying

cities.
Maybe you could see him saying
that cities and citizens of them

Maybe you could see him saying
that cities and citizens of them
didn't have to be stuck; that he

that cities and citizens of them
didn't have to be stuck; that he
would have seen the block, the

didn't have to be stuck; that he
would have seen the block, the
street, the neighborhood as

would have seen the block, the
street, the neighborhood as
obstacles.

And he felt that now you can
overcome these obstacles.

Overcome these obstacles.
You can get into the flow.

You can get into the flow.
And, you know, he built the

And, you know, he built the
flow.

Flow.
He created the flow.
And he had a great skill at

And he had a great skill at
putting this across to the
public.

Putting this across to the
public.
"Wouldn't you like to go with

public.
"Wouldn't you like to go with
the flow?

"Wouldn't you like to go with
the flow?
Wouldn't you like to flow?

The flow?
Wouldn't you like to flow?
Isn't it better than just

Wouldn't you like to flow?
Isn't it better than just
hanging out?"

Isn't it better than just
hanging out?"
It took Moses six or

hanging out?"
It took Moses six or
seven years of fighting with Al

It took Moses six or
seven years of fighting with Al
Smith behind him to hack out

seven years of fighting with Al
Smith behind him to hack out
that park and parkway system for

Smith behind him to hack out
that park and parkway system for
Long Island, but when he did it,

that park and parkway system for
Long Island, but when he did it,
when Jones Beach opened in 1929,

Long Island, but when he did it,
when Jones Beach opened in 1929,
the whole world came to praise

when Jones Beach opened in 1929,
the whole world came to praise
it.

The whole world came to praise
it.
No one had ever seen anything

it.
No one had ever seen anything
like it.

No one had ever seen anything
like it.
And who came?

Like it.
And who came?
The young, urban builders, the

And who came?
The young, urban builders, the
people who wanted to build

The young, urban builders, the
people who wanted to build
roads, who wanted to build

people who wanted to build
roads, who wanted to build
parkways, who wanted to build

roads, who wanted to build
parkways, who wanted to build
state parks... they came to

parkways, who wanted to build
state parks... they came to
Robert Moses to learn how to do

state parks... they came to
Robert Moses to learn how to do
it.

Robert Moses to learn how to do
it.
So he was not only America's

it.
So he was not only America's
greatest road builder, but he

So he was not only America's
greatest road builder, but he
was the man who taught the other

greatest road builder, but he
was the man who taught the other
road builders.

Was the man who taught the other
road builders.
By 1929, Robert

road builders.
By 1929, Robert
Moses had helped set in motion

By 1929, Robert
Moses had helped set in motion
one of the most fateful

Moses had helped set in motion
one of the most fateful
transformations the city and its

one of the most fateful
transformations the city and its
surroundings would ever undergo,

transformations the city and its
surroundings would ever undergo,
opening the region beyond the

surroundings would ever undergo,
opening the region beyond the
city's borders to the reality of

opening the region beyond the
city's borders to the reality of
the automobile.

City's borders to the reality of
the automobile.
Now, as the private energies of

the automobile.
Now, as the private energies of
the 1920s gave way to the public

Now, as the private energies of
the 1920s gave way to the public
crisis of the 1930s, he would

the 1920s gave way to the public
crisis of the 1930s, he would
finally get a chance to

crisis of the 1930s, he would
finally get a chance to
transform the city itself,

finally get a chance to
transform the city itself,
which, for better or for worse,

transform the city itself,
which, for better or for worse,
would never be the same again.

Which, for better or for worse,
would never be the same again.
Up through the

would never be the same again.
Up through the
depression, the federal

Up through the
depression, the federal
government had almost no

depression, the federal
government had almost no
involvement in funding urban

government had almost no
involvement in funding urban
functions.

Involvement in funding urban
functions.
They just didn't pay for things

functions.
They just didn't pay for things
that happened in cities.

They just didn't pay for things
that happened in cities.
But the New Deal changes all

that happened in cities.
But the New Deal changes all
that and they begin a whole new

But the New Deal changes all
that and they begin a whole new
phase in American history in

that and they begin a whole new
phase in American history in
which the federal government

phase in American history in
which the federal government
funds local enterprises.

Which the federal government
funds local enterprises.
Because one main reason for

funds local enterprises.
Because one main reason for
doing this is to get the economy

Because one main reason for
doing this is to get the economy
going, get cash flowing, the

doing this is to get the economy
going, get cash flowing, the
Roosevelt administration is very

going, get cash flowing, the
Roosevelt administration is very
eager for things that can start

Roosevelt administration is very
eager for things that can start
quickly.

Eager for things that can start
quickly.
And one of the geniuses of

quickly.
And one of the geniuses of
Robert Moses is that he

And one of the geniuses of
Robert Moses is that he
understood that opportunities

Robert Moses is that he
understood that opportunities
would arise and he had plans in

understood that opportunities
would arise and he had plans in
his back pocket... sometimes just

would arise and he had plans in
his back pocket... sometimes just
in the back of his head, but

his back pocket... sometimes just
in the back of his head, but
sometimes more than that... that

in the back of his head, but
sometimes more than that... that
can be pulled out of a drawer

sometimes more than that... that
can be pulled out of a drawer
and put in place extremely

can be pulled out of a drawer
and put in place extremely
quickly.

And put in place extremely
quickly.
From the day he

quickly.
From the day he
took office as New York City

From the day he
took office as New York City
parks commissioner on January

took office as New York City
parks commissioner on January
19, 1934, Robert Moses would

parks commissioner on January
19, 1934, Robert Moses would
become the epicenter of a

19, 1934, Robert Moses would
become the epicenter of a
whirlwind of public building,

become the epicenter of a
whirlwind of public building,
reaching out to every corner of

whirlwind of public building,
reaching out to every corner of
the city.

Reaching out to every corner of
the city.
He had accepted the job only on

the city.
He had accepted the job only on
certain conditions: that he be

He had accepted the job only on
certain conditions: that he be
given absolute control over

certain conditions: that he be
given absolute control over
every park in the city, that he

given absolute control over
every park in the city, that he
retain the state post Al Smith

every park in the city, that he
retain the state post Al Smith
had given him, and that he be

retain the state post Al Smith
had given him, and that he be
granted still larger powers as

had given him, and that he be
granted still larger powers as
head of the moribund Triborough

granted still larger powers as
head of the moribund Triborough
Bridge Authority, an immense

head of the moribund Triborough
Bridge Authority, an immense
public-works project that had

Bridge Authority, an immense
public-works project that had
languished so long people had

public-works project that had
languished so long people had
started calling it the bridge to

languished so long people had
started calling it the bridge to
nowhere.

Started calling it the bridge to
nowhere.
Eager to begin rebuilding the

nowhere.
Eager to begin rebuilding the
battered city, La Guardia

Eager to begin rebuilding the
battered city, La Guardia
agreed, and in the end, Moses

battered city, La Guardia
agreed, and in the end, Moses
himself drafted the special

agreed, and in the end, Moses
himself drafted the special
legislation creating his new

himself drafted the special
legislation creating his new
position, then, within hours of

legislation creating his new
position, then, within hours of
taking office, swiftly fired all

position, then, within hours of
taking office, swiftly fired all
the old borough commissioners

taking office, swiftly fired all
the old borough commissioners
and their staff and set to work.

The old borough commissioners
and their staff and set to work.
The parks were in

and their staff and set to work.
The parks were in
complete disrepair.

The parks were in
complete disrepair.
The Central Park Zoo... Tammany,

complete disrepair.
The Central Park Zoo... Tammany,
of course, had let it go

The Central Park Zoo... Tammany,
of course, had let it go
completely without repair.

Of course, had let it go
completely without repair.
The cages were so rotten that

completely without repair.
The cages were so rotten that
they were afraid that the lions

The cages were so rotten that
they were afraid that the lions
and tigers might break out.

They were afraid that the lions
and tigers might break out.
But instead of repairing the

and tigers might break out.
But instead of repairing the
cages, they hired Tammany men to

But instead of repairing the
cages, they hired Tammany men to
sit at the entrances of the zoo

cages, they hired Tammany men to
sit at the entrances of the zoo
with shotguns to shoot the

sit at the entrances of the zoo
with shotguns to shoot the
animals in case there was a fire

with shotguns to shoot the
animals in case there was a fire
or the cages broke.

Animals in case there was a fire
or the cages broke.
Armed with New Deal

or the cages broke.
Armed with New Deal
funds, Moses exploded into

Armed with New Deal
funds, Moses exploded into
action, turning first to the

funds, Moses exploded into
action, turning first to the
city's dilapidated parks.

Action, turning first to the
city's dilapidated parks.
Within days, he had sent for the

city's dilapidated parks.
Within days, he had sent for the
crack team of men he had used on

Within days, he had sent for the
crack team of men he had used on
Long Island, then hired more

crack team of men he had used on
Long Island, then hired more
than 600 unemployed architects

Long Island, then hired more
than 600 unemployed architects
and engineers, along with a team

than 600 unemployed architects
and engineers, along with a team
of hard-driving Irish foremen,

and engineers, along with a team
of hard-driving Irish foremen,
who quickly whipped an army of

of hard-driving Irish foremen,
who quickly whipped an army of
newly recruited relief workers

who quickly whipped an army of
newly recruited relief workers
into a disciplined construction

newly recruited relief workers
into a disciplined construction
force 80,000 strong.

Into a disciplined construction
force 80,000 strong.
All through the winter of 1934,

force 80,000 strong.
All through the winter of 1934,
triple shifts of workers labored

All through the winter of 1934,
triple shifts of workers labored
round the clock to meet the

triple shifts of workers labored
round the clock to meet the
master builder's punishing

round the clock to meet the
master builder's punishing
timetable.

Master builder's punishing
timetable.
By the first warm weekend in

timetable.
By the first warm weekend in
May, Moses's workforce had

By the first warm weekend in
May, Moses's workforce had
completely transformed every

May, Moses's workforce had
completely transformed every
public park and green space in

completely transformed every
public park and green space in
the city, more than 1,700

public park and green space in
the city, more than 1,700
renovation projects in all,

the city, more than 1,700
renovation projects in all,
including Central Park itself,

renovation projects in all,
including Central Park itself,
where before the year was out, a

including Central Park itself,
where before the year was out, a
magnificent new zoo had arisen

where before the year was out, a
magnificent new zoo had arisen
on the crumbling ruins of the

magnificent new zoo had arisen
on the crumbling ruins of the
old.

On the crumbling ruins of the
old.
Ladies and

old.
Ladies and
Gentlemen, children, you will

Ladies and
Gentlemen, children, you will
find there another of the actual

Gentlemen, children, you will
find there another of the actual
living proof that New York City

find there another of the actual
living proof that New York City
is getting something out of its

living proof that New York City
is getting something out of its
relief expenditures.

Is getting something out of its
relief expenditures.
We seek to put them to useful

relief expenditures.
We seek to put them to useful
work and hardly a week passes

We seek to put them to useful
work and hardly a week passes
but in the Park Department there

work and hardly a week passes
but in the Park Department there
is completed one of these work

but in the Park Department there
is completed one of these work
projects.

Is completed one of these work
projects.

- Projects.
- As signs of life

As signs of life
began to stir in the city for

As signs of life
began to stir in the city for
the first time in half a decade,

began to stir in the city for
the first time in half a decade,
hope began to rise in the hearts

the first time in half a decade,
hope began to rise in the hearts
of New Yorkers, and it was only

hope began to rise in the hearts
of New Yorkers, and it was only
the beginning.

Of New Yorkers, and it was only
the beginning.
In little more than half a

the beginning.
In little more than half a
decade, boldly stretching the

In little more than half a
decade, boldly stretching the
definition of "parks" to include

decade, boldly stretching the
definition of "parks" to include
limited-access parkways and

definition of "parks" to include
limited-access parkways and
wresting money could from any

limited-access parkways and
wresting money could from any
source he could, Robert Moses

wresting money could from any
source he could, Robert Moses
would begin to construct the

source he could, Robert Moses
would begin to construct the
first urban highway system in

would begin to construct the
first urban highway system in
the world, connected to a

first urban highway system in
the world, connected to a
breathtaking network of tunnels,

the world, connected to a
breathtaking network of tunnels,
viaducts, causeways, and

breathtaking network of tunnels,
viaducts, causeways, and
bridges, that would begin to

viaducts, causeways, and
bridges, that would begin to
adapt the old city grid to the

bridges, that would begin to
adapt the old city grid to the
reality of the automobile and

adapt the old city grid to the
reality of the automobile and
knit the entire region into a

reality of the automobile and
knit the entire region into a
single coherent whole.

Knit the entire region into a
single coherent whole.
The '30s, of course,

single coherent whole.
The '30s, of course,
is all about concrete.

The '30s, of course,
is all about concrete.
Really it's the '30s that

is all about concrete.
Really it's the '30s that
finishes off mass transit as a

Really it's the '30s that
finishes off mass transit as a
possible contender for future

finishes off mass transit as a
possible contender for future
transport-based operations in

possible contender for future
transport-based operations in
the city.

Transport-based operations in
the city.
You know, what the auto industry

the city.
You know, what the auto industry
was able to do was to get public

You know, what the auto industry
was able to do was to get public
money pouring into constructing

was able to do was to get public
money pouring into constructing
the infrastructure that they

money pouring into constructing
the infrastructure that they
wanted.

The infrastructure that they
wanted.
And with WPA money, in fact,

wanted.
And with WPA money, in fact,
they rip up miles and miles of

And with WPA money, in fact,
they rip up miles and miles of
streetcars in city after city

they rip up miles and miles of
streetcars in city after city
around the country, run them

streetcars in city after city
around the country, run them
into the ground, shut them down.

Around the country, run them
into the ground, shut them down.
It is true that La Guardia does

into the ground, shut them down.
It is true that La Guardia does
maintain the subway system.

It is true that La Guardia does
maintain the subway system.
He picks up the bankrupt IRT.

Maintain the subway system.
He picks up the bankrupt IRT.
He does push for new lines.

He picks up the bankrupt IRT.
He does push for new lines.
But above ground La Guardia is a

He does push for new lines.
But above ground La Guardia is a
car man.

But above ground La Guardia is a
car man.
La Guardia believes that this is

car man.
La Guardia believes that this is
modern, this is cutting edge,

La Guardia believes that this is
modern, this is cutting edge,
this is the wave of the future.

Modern, this is cutting edge,
this is the wave of the future.
So what Moses is doing is the

this is the wave of the future.
So what Moses is doing is the
executor of this program.

So what Moses is doing is the
executor of this program.
The federal government... New

executor of this program.
The federal government... New
Deal money just cascades into

The federal government... New
Deal money just cascades into
the city.

Deal money just cascades into
the city.
And very much in the Olmsted

the city.
And very much in the Olmsted
tradition, he's going to build a

And very much in the Olmsted
tradition, he's going to build a
series of connecting highways.

Tradition, he's going to build a
series of connecting highways.
Before the decade

series of connecting highways.
Before the decade
was out, a great circumferential

Before the decade
was out, a great circumferential
parkway had begun to sweep

was out, a great circumferential
parkway had begun to sweep
around Brooklyn from the East

parkway had begun to sweep
around Brooklyn from the East
River to the Atlantic; a

around Brooklyn from the East
River to the Atlantic; a
ravishing bridge had leapt over

River to the Atlantic; a
ravishing bridge had leapt over
the Harlem River, connecting

ravishing bridge had leapt over
the Harlem River, connecting
Manhattan and the Bronx; and the

the Harlem River, connecting
Manhattan and the Bronx; and the
revolutionary West Side

Manhattan and the Bronx; and the
revolutionary West Side
Improvement, a gorgeously

revolutionary West Side
Improvement, a gorgeously
landscaped, six-and-a-half-mile-

Improvement, a gorgeously
landscaped, six-and-a-half-mile-
long urban symphony, part park

landscaped, six-and-a-half-mile-
long urban symphony, part park
and part parkway, had begun to

long urban symphony, part park
and part parkway, had begun to
sweep majestically down the west

and part parkway, had begun to
sweep majestically down the west
side of Manhattan along the

sweep majestically down the west
side of Manhattan along the
Hudson River.

Side of Manhattan along the
Hudson River.
Covering over the old New York

Hudson River.
Covering over the old New York
Central tracks and transforming

Covering over the old New York
Central tracks and transforming
Riverside Park from an urban

Central tracks and transforming
Riverside Park from an urban
wasteland into a piece of urban

Riverside Park from an urban
wasteland into a piece of urban
poetry, the seductively curving

wasteland into a piece of urban
poetry, the seductively curving
drive gave motorists an

poetry, the seductively curving
drive gave motorists an
experience of the city they had

drive gave motorists an
experience of the city they had
never had before... the ravishing

experience of the city they had
never had before... the ravishing
towers of midtown Manhattan

never had before... the ravishing
towers of midtown Manhattan
looming above the lush greenness

towers of midtown Manhattan
looming above the lush greenness
of the park in a shimmering

looming above the lush greenness
of the park in a shimmering
landscape that, as in a movie or

of the park in a shimmering
landscape that, as in a movie or
a dream, was constantly

landscape that, as in a movie or
a dream, was constantly
shifting, constantly changing,

a dream, was constantly
shifting, constantly changing,
and always in motion.

Shifting, constantly changing,
and always in motion.
No one has ever been

and always in motion.
No one has ever been
able to know how much money

No one has ever been
able to know how much money
Robert Moses spent on the West

able to know how much money
Robert Moses spent on the West
Side Improvement.

Robert Moses spent on the West
Side Improvement.
I finally concluded that the

Side Improvement.
I finally concluded that the
amount that he spent was at

I finally concluded that the
amount that he spent was at
least $180 million, but it was

amount that he spent was at
least $180 million, but it was
almost certainly well over $200

least $180 million, but it was
almost certainly well over $200
million... a quarter of a billion

almost certainly well over $200
million... a quarter of a billion
dollars on a public work in

million... a quarter of a billion
dollars on a public work in
1930s America.

Dollars on a public work in
1930s America.
And, you know, the chorus of

1930s America.
And, you know, the chorus of
praise for this highway was just

And, you know, the chorus of
praise for this highway was just
fantastic.

Praise for this highway was just
fantastic.
And one editorial said, "The

fantastic.
And one editorial said, "The
railroad tracks are covered at

And one editorial said, "The
railroad tracks are covered at
last."

railroad tracks are covered at
last."
And yet, in scale

last."
And yet, in scale
and audacity, even the West Side

And yet, in scale
and audacity, even the West Side
Improvement paled before that of

and audacity, even the West Side
Improvement paled before that of
another giant public work, the

Improvement paled before that of
another giant public work, the
Triborough Bridge, an epic

another giant public work, the
Triborough Bridge, an epic
complex of roadways and bridges

Triborough Bridge, an epic
complex of roadways and bridges
that lay at the very heart of

complex of roadways and bridges
that lay at the very heart of
Robert Moses's new

that lay at the very heart of
Robert Moses's new
transportation system.

Robert Moses's new
transportation system.
And there it is very

transportation system.
And there it is very
clear what we mean by Robert

And there it is very
clear what we mean by Robert
Moses as the shaper of New York.

Clear what we mean by Robert
Moses as the shaper of New York.
The glaciers that had rumbled

Moses as the shaper of New York.
The glaciers that had rumbled
down from Hudson Bay eons before

The glaciers that had rumbled
down from Hudson Bay eons before
had torn Long Island, which

down from Hudson Bay eons before
had torn Long Island, which
carries, of course, Brooklyn and

had torn Long Island, which
carries, of course, Brooklyn and
Queens, loose from the mainland

carries, of course, Brooklyn and
Queens, loose from the mainland
of the United States.

Queens, loose from the mainland
of the United States.
Robert Moses stitched it back

of the United States.
Robert Moses stitched it back
together again with the

Robert Moses stitched it back
together again with the
Triborough bridge.

Together again with the
Triborough bridge.
If you look at New York from the

Triborough bridge.
If you look at New York from the
air, you see an incredible fact

If you look at New York from the
air, you see an incredible fact
that three great boroughs of the

air, you see an incredible fact
that three great boroughs of the
city, Manhattan, the Bronx, and

that three great boroughs of the
city, Manhattan, the Bronx, and
Queens, rush together.

City, Manhattan, the Bronx, and
Queens, rush together.
The streets appear to be rushing

Queens, rush together.
The streets appear to be rushing
together.

The streets appear to be rushing
together.
And all of a sudden, at the

together.
And all of a sudden, at the
point that they're rushing

And all of a sudden, at the
point that they're rushing
together, they're held apart by

point that they're rushing
together, they're held apart by
these narrow bands of water, in

together, they're held apart by
these narrow bands of water, in
the middle of which is Randalls

these narrow bands of water, in
the middle of which is Randalls
and Wards Island.

The middle of which is Randalls
and Wards Island.
By building Triborough and

and Wards Island.
By building Triborough and
uniting these three boroughs, he

By building Triborough and
uniting these three boroughs, he
was uniting the city; he was

uniting these three boroughs, he
was uniting the city; he was
repairing single-handedly what

was uniting the city; he was
repairing single-handedly what
nature had done.

Repairing single-handedly what
nature had done.
Despite its name,

nature had done.
Despite its name,
Triborough was not really a

Despite its name,
Triborough was not really a
bridge at all, but three giant

Triborough was not really a
bridge at all, but three giant
bridges in one... "a rendezvous

bridge at all, but three giant
bridges in one... "a rendezvous
of bridges," one man later

bridges in one... "a rendezvous
of bridges," one man later
said... together with 13,500 feet

of bridges," one man later
said... together with 13,500 feet
of elevated viaduct and 14 miles

said... together with 13,500 feet
of elevated viaduct and 14 miles
of roadway... "a traffic

of elevated viaduct and 14 miles
of roadway... "a traffic
machine," another man said, "the

of roadway... "a traffic
machine," another man said, "the
largest ever built."

machine," another man said, "the
largest ever built."
Mighty Triborough...

Largest ever built."
Mighty Triborough...
this is just one part of it.

Mighty Triborough...
this is just one part of it.
It's the largest vertical-lift

this is just one part of it.
It's the largest vertical-lift
bridge in the world, which means

It's the largest vertical-lift
bridge in the world, which means
that that center span you're

bridge in the world, which means
that that center span you're
looking at has to rise 80 feet

that that center span you're
looking at has to rise 80 feet
in the air vertically between

looking at has to rise 80 feet
in the air vertically between
the two towers every time a

in the air vertically between
the two towers every time a
large ship passes.

The two towers every time a
large ship passes.
If you were standing here in

large ship passes.
If you were standing here in
1934 and '35 when they were

If you were standing here in
1934 and '35 when they were
putting in the girders for this

1934 and '35 when they were
putting in the girders for this
span, each girder was as big as

putting in the girders for this
span, each girder was as big as
a ten-room ranch house and it

span, each girder was as big as
a ten-room ranch house and it
was so big that one barge or two

a ten-room ranch house and it
was so big that one barge or two
barges couldn't carry it.

Was so big that one barge or two
barges couldn't carry it.
Four or five barges would be

barges couldn't carry it.
Four or five barges would be
lashed together and they'd come

Four or five barges would be
lashed together and they'd come
up this river pushed by a whole

lashed together and they'd come
up this river pushed by a whole
covey of tugboats until they got

up this river pushed by a whole
covey of tugboats until they got
it into position.

Covey of tugboats until they got
it into position.
Remember, this was in the middle

it into position.
Remember, this was in the middle
of the depression.

Remember, this was in the middle
of the depression.
There was so much concrete in

of the depression.
There was so much concrete in
this bridge that they had to

There was so much concrete in
this bridge that they had to
reopen cement factories from

this bridge that they had to
reopen cement factories from
Maine to Mississippi.

Reopen cement factories from
Maine to Mississippi.
To make the wood for the forms

Maine to Mississippi.
To make the wood for the forms
to hold the concrete, a whole

To make the wood for the forms
to hold the concrete, a whole
forest had to be cut down in

to hold the concrete, a whole
forest had to be cut down in
Oregon.

Forest had to be cut down in
Oregon.
5,000 men at a time were working

Oregon.
5,000 men at a time were working
on these islands on the bridge.

5,000 men at a time were working
on these islands on the bridge.
And of course, the 5,000 men

on these islands on the bridge.
And of course, the 5,000 men
were only putting into place the

And of course, the 5,000 men
were only putting into place the
materials that had been created,

were only putting into place the
materials that had been created,
the steel, et cetera, by many

materials that had been created,
the steel, et cetera, by many
times 5,000 men.

The steel, et cetera, by many
times 5,000 men.
31 million man-hours of work

times 5,000 men.
31 million man-hours of work
went into the Triborough bridge

31 million man-hours of work
went into the Triborough bridge
in 134 cities in 20 states.

Went into the Triborough bridge
in 134 cities in 20 states.
In the middle of the depression,

in 134 cities in 20 states.
In the middle of the depression,
this one project really

In the middle of the depression,
this one project really
galvanized things across the

this one project really
galvanized things across the
United States.

Galvanized things across the
United States.
The Triborough Bridge,

United States.
The Triborough Bridge,
with its Art Deco detailing,

The Triborough Bridge,
with its Art Deco detailing,
with its cloverleaf arrangements

with its Art Deco detailing,
with its cloverleaf arrangements
of ramps connecting not only the

with its cloverleaf arrangements
of ramps connecting not only the
three boroughs, but the parks

of ramps connecting not only the
three boroughs, but the parks
which he reclaimed on the

three boroughs, but the parks
which he reclaimed on the
islands below, is an

which he reclaimed on the
islands below, is an
unbelievably complicated and

islands below, is an
unbelievably complicated and
beautiful piece of engineering.

Unbelievably complicated and
beautiful piece of engineering.
It's highway building lifted to

beautiful piece of engineering.
It's highway building lifted to
the art of sculpture in motion.

It's highway building lifted to
the art of sculpture in motion.
It's fantastic.

The art of sculpture in motion.
It's fantastic.
Under his direction, we got some

It's fantastic.
Under his direction, we got some
of the greatest public works the

Under his direction, we got some
of the greatest public works the
world has ever seen.

Of the greatest public works the
world has ever seen.
The massive

world has ever seen.
The massive
structure was finally opened on

The massive
structure was finally opened on
July 11, 1936, in an awe-

structure was finally opened on
July 11, 1936, in an awe-
inspiring ceremony broadcast by

July 11, 1936, in an awe-
inspiring ceremony broadcast by
radio across the entire nation.

Inspiring ceremony broadcast by
radio across the entire nation.
It was, one government official

radio across the entire nation.
It was, one government official
said simply, "one of the

It was, one government official
said simply, "one of the
greatest accomplishments of

said simply, "one of the
greatest accomplishments of
man."

greatest accomplishments of
man."
President Roosevelt himself gave

man."
President Roosevelt himself gave
the keynote address, but it was

President Roosevelt himself gave
the keynote address, but it was
Robert Moses who was the

the keynote address, but it was
Robert Moses who was the
undisputed hero of the day.

Robert Moses who was the
undisputed hero of the day.
"We are definitely in

undisputed hero of the day.
"We are definitely in
an era of building, the best

"We are definitely in
an era of building, the best
kind of building... the building

an era of building, the best
kind of building... the building
of great public projects for the

kind of building... the building
of great public projects for the
benefit of the public and with

of great public projects for the
benefit of the public and with
the object of building human

benefit of the public and with
the object of building human
happiness."

the object of building human
happiness."
Franklin Delano Roosevelt.

Happiness."
Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
Year after year, as

Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
Year after year, as
one immense public-works project

Year after year, as
one immense public-works project
after another rose in New York

one immense public-works project
after another rose in New York
City, the frenzy of construction

after another rose in New York
City, the frenzy of construction
became a heart-stopping symbol

City, the frenzy of construction
became a heart-stopping symbol
of civic rebirth and renewal,

became a heart-stopping symbol
of civic rebirth and renewal,
holding out the promise, one man

of civic rebirth and renewal,
holding out the promise, one man
later said, "of a glorious

holding out the promise, one man
later said, "of a glorious
future, just over the horizon,

later said, "of a glorious
future, just over the horizon,
not merely for the privileged

future, just over the horizon,
not merely for the privileged
few, but for the people as a

not merely for the privileged
few, but for the people as a
whole."

few, but for the people as a
whole."
Robert Moses himself was certain

whole."
Robert Moses himself was certain
he held the keys to the city's

Robert Moses himself was certain
he held the keys to the city's
future.

He held the keys to the city's
future.
"There are people who like

future.
"There are people who like
things as they are," he

"There are people who like
things as they are," he
declared.

Things as they are," he
declared.
"I can't hold out any hope to

declared.
"I can't hold out any hope to
them.

"I can't hold out any hope to
them.
They have to keep moving further

them.
They have to keep moving further
away.

They have to keep moving further
away.
This is a great big state and

away.
This is a great big state and
there are also other states.

This is a great big state and
there are also other states.
Let them go to the Rockies."

there are also other states.
Let them go to the Rockies."
Well, he's

Let them go to the Rockies."
Well, he's
absolutely the right man at the

Well, he's
absolutely the right man at the
right moment.

Absolutely the right man at the
right moment.
There's no question about it.

Right moment.
There's no question about it.
He has his own vision for what

There's no question about it.
He has his own vision for what
New York could be and what

He has his own vision for what
New York could be and what
cities can be and suddenly he

New York could be and what
cities can be and suddenly he
has an opportunity to put that

cities can be and suddenly he
has an opportunity to put that
into practice.

Has an opportunity to put that
into practice.
He's got manpower through the

into practice.
He's got manpower through the
WPA.

He's got manpower through the
WPA.
He's got money.

WPA.
He's got money.
He's got a city that is

He's got money.
He's got a city that is
devastated and needs an

He's got a city that is
devastated and needs an
infrastructure.

Devastated and needs an
infrastructure.
And he's tremendously creative

infrastructure.
And he's tremendously creative
and smart and gifted and really

And he's tremendously creative
and smart and gifted and really
has a vision that he really

and smart and gifted and really
has a vision that he really
tries to implement.

Has a vision that he really
tries to implement.
Sometimes that came at the

tries to implement.
Sometimes that came at the
expense of other things.

Sometimes that came at the
expense of other things.
Sometimes it came with a vision

expense of other things.
Sometimes it came with a vision
that we no longer have.

Sometimes it came with a vision
that we no longer have.
He built highways right on the

that we no longer have.
He built highways right on the
river because in his day you

He built highways right on the
river because in his day you
drove for recreation and that's

river because in his day you
drove for recreation and that's
what you saw.

Drove for recreation and that's
what you saw.
Now we have highways blocking

what you saw.
Now we have highways blocking
our views of the river.

Now we have highways blocking
our views of the river.
But at the time it was a vision

our views of the river.
But at the time it was a vision
about how to integrate the

But at the time it was a vision
about how to integrate the
landscape and make it work for

about how to integrate the
landscape and make it work for
human beings that transformed

landscape and make it work for
human beings that transformed
the city and people's lives in

human beings that transformed
the city and people's lives in
it.

The city and people's lives in
it.
In retrospect,

it.
In retrospect,
however, the opening of the

In retrospect,
however, the opening of the
Triborough Bridge would seem to

however, the opening of the
Triborough Bridge would seem to
some to mark a fateful turning

Triborough Bridge would seem to
some to mark a fateful turning
point in the culture of the

some to mark a fateful turning
point in the culture of the
automobile in New York, and in

point in the culture of the
automobile in New York, and in
the career of Robert Moses, in

automobile in New York, and in
the career of Robert Moses, in
ways New Yorkers themselves did

the career of Robert Moses, in
ways New Yorkers themselves did
not fully comprehend at the time

ways New Yorkers themselves did
not fully comprehend at the time
and with consequences that would

not fully comprehend at the time
and with consequences that would
not be fully felt for decades.

And with consequences that would
not be fully felt for decades.
Robert

not be fully felt for decades.
Robert
Moses is the paradox of urban

Robert
Moses is the paradox of urban
history in the 20th century.

Moses is the paradox of urban
history in the 20th century.
Every city in the United States

history in the 20th century.
Every city in the United States
wanted a Robert Moses.

Every city in the United States
wanted a Robert Moses.
Every city wanted a Bob Moses

wanted a Robert Moses.
Every city wanted a Bob Moses
building bigger roads, faster

Every city wanted a Bob Moses
building bigger roads, faster
expressways, and more of them.

Building bigger roads, faster
expressways, and more of them.
And Moses was extraordinarily

expressways, and more of them.
And Moses was extraordinarily
good at actually shaping the

And Moses was extraordinarily
good at actually shaping the
physical city and getting things

good at actually shaping the
physical city and getting things
done.

I think the damage that Moses
did is actually very real, so

did is actually very real, so
that the other side of the coin

that the other side of the coin
is Bob Moses is actually an

is Bob Moses is actually an
embodiment of the fact that in

embodiment of the fact that in
the 20th century we put the

the 20th century we put the
physical prominence of the city

physical prominence of the city
before its people.
We actually fetished the urban

We actually fetished the urban
form and forgot the human beings
who live there.

Form and forgot the human beings
who live there.
Less than five

who live there.
Less than five
weeks after the opening of the

Less than five
weeks after the opening of the
Triborough Bridge, built to

weeks after the opening of the
Triborough Bridge, built to
decrease congestion in the city,

Triborough Bridge, built to
decrease congestion in the city,
New Yorkers got a glimpse of the

decrease congestion in the city,
New Yorkers got a glimpse of the
future the automobile was

New Yorkers got a glimpse of the
future the automobile was
beginning to usher in when on

future the automobile was
beginning to usher in when on
August 17, 1936, the biggest

beginning to usher in when on
August 17, 1936, the biggest
traffic jam in the history of

August 17, 1936, the biggest
traffic jam in the history of
the metropolitan region brought

traffic jam in the history of
the metropolitan region brought
cars on the Long Island parkways

the metropolitan region brought
cars on the Long Island parkways
to a standstill.

Cars on the Long Island parkways
to a standstill.
You know, the lesson of

to a standstill.
You know, the lesson of
New York... I mean, if you look

You know, the lesson of
New York... I mean, if you look
at Moses's career when it turns

New York... I mean, if you look
at Moses's career when it turns
dark... he refused to take into

at Moses's career when it turns
dark... he refused to take into
account the effect... what we

dark... he refused to take into
account the effect... what we
call today traffic generation...

Account the effect... what we
call today traffic generation...
of his facilities: the fact that

call today traffic generation...
of his facilities: the fact that
by building a road, by building

of his facilities: the fact that
by building a road, by building
a bridge, by building a tunnel,

by building a road, by building
a bridge, by building a tunnel,
you are in itself increasing

a bridge, by building a tunnel,
you are in itself increasing
traffic.

You are in itself increasing
traffic.
So whatever benefits you are

traffic.
So whatever benefits you are
expecting to get is going to be

So whatever benefits you are
expecting to get is going to be
immediately reduced.

Expecting to get is going to be
immediately reduced.
For example, when he said the

immediately reduced.
For example, when he said the
Triborough Bridge will solve the

For example, when he said the
Triborough Bridge will solve the
traffic problem on the East

Triborough Bridge will solve the
traffic problem on the East
River bridges, the

traffic problem on the East
River bridges, the
Queensborough, et cetera, he

River bridges, the
Queensborough, et cetera, he
opened the Triborough Bridge,

Queensborough, et cetera, he
opened the Triborough Bridge,
the traffic was far heavier than

opened the Triborough Bridge,
the traffic was far heavier than
he predicted.

The traffic was far heavier than
he predicted.
Triborough was crowded and so

he predicted.
Triborough was crowded and so
was the Queensborough Bridge.

Triborough was crowded and so
was the Queensborough Bridge.
So he said, "I'll solve that by

was the Queensborough Bridge.
So he said, "I'll solve that by
building the Bronx-Whitestone

So he said, "I'll solve that by
building the Bronx-Whitestone
Bridge."

building the Bronx-Whitestone
Bridge."
For a while it worked.

Bridge."
For a while it worked.
In two years, the Queensborough

For a while it worked.
In two years, the Queensborough
was as full as it had ever been

In two years, the Queensborough
was as full as it had ever been
and more, Triborough was more

was as full as it had ever been
and more, Triborough was more
full than ever before, and the

and more, Triborough was more
full than ever before, and the
Bronx-Whitestone Bridge was

full than ever before, and the
Bronx-Whitestone Bridge was
full.

Bronx-Whitestone Bridge was
full.
So he said, "Well, I'll build

full.
So he said, "Well, I'll build
the Throgs Neck Bridge."

So he said, "Well, I'll build
the Throgs Neck Bridge."
You know, if Moses had had his

the Throgs Neck Bridge."
You know, if Moses had had his
way, he would have built bridges

You know, if Moses had had his
way, he would have built bridges
the length of Long Island Sound,

way, he would have built bridges
the length of Long Island Sound,
not only polluting the sound,

the length of Long Island Sound,
not only polluting the sound,
changing the flow of the water

not only polluting the sound,
changing the flow of the water
and all, but with each bridge he

changing the flow of the water
and all, but with each bridge he
just would've generated more

and all, but with each bridge he
just would've generated more
traffic.

Just would've generated more
traffic.
In the 1960s or so,

traffic.
In the 1960s or so,
some of Moses's critics

In the 1960s or so,
some of Moses's critics
understood that when you build

some of Moses's critics
understood that when you build
highways, you create more

understood that when you build
highways, you create more
congestion and more pressure for

highways, you create more
congestion and more pressure for
highways.

Congestion and more pressure for
highways.
Moses understood this much

highways.
Moses understood this much
earlier.

Moses understood this much
earlier.
I mean, when he was trying to

earlier.
I mean, when he was trying to
get money for highways, he would

I mean, when he was trying to
get money for highways, he would
say it's to relieve congestion,

get money for highways, he would
say it's to relieve congestion,
but he knew that, in fact, it

say it's to relieve congestion,
but he knew that, in fact, it
would create more congestion and

but he knew that, in fact, it
would create more congestion and
a need for further highways and,

would create more congestion and
a need for further highways and,
hence, would have to move the

a need for further highways and,
hence, would have to move the
flow, would have to move the map

hence, would have to move the
flow, would have to move the map
to create more flow and make it

flow, would have to move the map
to create more flow and make it
flow further on and further out.

To create more flow and make it
flow further on and further out.
In that sense, once you started

flow further on and further out.
In that sense, once you started
the highway machine, it was

In that sense, once you started
the highway machine, it was
self-perpetuating.

The highway machine, it was
self-perpetuating.
You couldn't stop.

Self-perpetuating.
You couldn't stop.
Even more troubling

You couldn't stop.
Even more troubling
than the immense traffic jams

Even more troubling
than the immense traffic jams
his public works were

than the immense traffic jams
his public works were
generating, though far less

his public works were
generating, though far less
apparent to the naked eye, was

generating, though far less
apparent to the naked eye, was
the power Moses was accumulating

apparent to the naked eye, was
the power Moses was accumulating
in the process of building them

the power Moses was accumulating
in the process of building them
through the instrument of the

in the process of building them
through the instrument of the
new public authorities.

Through the instrument of the
new public authorities.
You know, we are taught

new public authorities.
You know, we are taught
in political science classes

You know, we are taught
in political science classes
that in a democracy, power comes

in political science classes
that in a democracy, power comes
from being elected.

That in a democracy, power comes
from being elected.
It's the will of the people.

From being elected.
It's the will of the people.
Robert Moses realized that he

It's the will of the people.
Robert Moses realized that he
was never going to get power

Robert Moses realized that he
was never going to get power
through that normal democratic

was never going to get power
through that normal democratic
process.

Through that normal democratic
process.
He had to figure out a different

process.
He had to figure out a different
way to get it and he did it by

He had to figure out a different
way to get it and he did it by
creating what is really a fourth

way to get it and he did it by
creating what is really a fourth
branch of government and one not

creating what is really a fourth
branch of government and one not
responsible to the will of the

branch of government and one not
responsible to the will of the
people, insulated from the will

responsible to the will of the
people, insulated from the will
of the people... the public

people, insulated from the will
of the people... the public
authority.

Of the people... the public
authority.
Empowered to sell

authority.
Empowered to sell
bonds to create great public

Empowered to sell
bonds to create great public
works, public authorities like

bonds to create great public
works, public authorities like
Triborough were meant to go out

works, public authorities like
Triborough were meant to go out
of business once the tolls they

Triborough were meant to go out
of business once the tolls they
charged had paid for the

of business once the tolls they
charged had paid for the
structures they created.

Charged had paid for the
structures they created.
But Robert Moses had no

structures they created.
But Robert Moses had no
intention of ever closing his

But Robert Moses had no
intention of ever closing his
authorities down.

Intention of ever closing his
authorities down.
Rewriting the legislation under

authorities down.
Rewriting the legislation under
which authorities were charted,

Rewriting the legislation under
which authorities were charted,
he made sure that the millions

which authorities were charted,
he made sure that the millions
of dollars in nickels and dimes

he made sure that the millions
of dollars in nickels and dimes
that streamed in every year

of dollars in nickels and dimes
that streamed in every year
remained a continuous flow of

that streamed in every year
remained a continuous flow of
revenue, upon which he could

remained a continuous flow of
revenue, upon which he could
borrow still more for future

revenue, upon which he could
borrow still more for future
projects... a bedrock of power

borrow still more for future
projects... a bedrock of power
that would place him beyond

projects... a bedrock of power
that would place him beyond
reach of the mayor, the

that would place him beyond
reach of the mayor, the
governor, or the people

reach of the mayor, the
governor, or the people
themselves, in perpetuity.

Governor, or the people
themselves, in perpetuity.
The centerpiece of all

themselves, in perpetuity.
The centerpiece of all
his power was what he called

The centerpiece of all
his power was what he called
Triborough, mighty Triborough,

his power was what he called
Triborough, mighty Triborough,
and that's where the

Triborough, mighty Triborough,
and that's where the
headquarters were, on Randalls

and that's where the
headquarters were, on Randalls
Island in a little building

headquarters were, on Randalls
Island in a little building
underneath that toll plaza.

Island in a little building
underneath that toll plaza.
Every driver who crossed this

underneath that toll plaza.
Every driver who crossed this
island, who crossed this bridge,

Every driver who crossed this
island, who crossed this bridge,
had to pay a toll in coin.

Island, who crossed this bridge,
had to pay a toll in coin.
And of course, almost none of

had to pay a toll in coin.
And of course, almost none of
the millions of motorists who

And of course, almost none of
the millions of motorists who
passed over had any idea that

the millions of motorists who
passed over had any idea that
the headquarters were down

passed over had any idea that
the headquarters were down
there.

The headquarters were down
there.
Now, the money that came in

there.
Now, the money that came in
through the tolls was spent at

Now, the money that came in
through the tolls was spent at
his sole discretion.

Through the tolls was spent at
his sole discretion.
He didn't have to do, as mayors

his sole discretion.
He didn't have to do, as mayors
do, go to a board of estimate or

He didn't have to do, as mayors
do, go to a board of estimate or
submit his will to the voters.

Do, go to a board of estimate or
submit his will to the voters.
He could spend authorities'

submit his will to the voters.
He could spend authorities'
money as he wanted to spend

He could spend authorities'
money as he wanted to spend
authorities' money.

Money as he wanted to spend
authorities' money.
So he created a system in which

authorities' money.
So he created a system in which
the voice of the people hardly

So he created a system in which
the voice of the people hardly
mattered at all.

The voice of the people hardly
mattered at all.
And I think he was

mattered at all.
And I think he was
able to do it, in part, because

And I think he was
able to do it, in part, because
he was making so many people

able to do it, in part, because
he was making so many people
rich and they were there for him

he was making so many people
rich and they were there for him
and he didn't have to pick up

rich and they were there for him
and he didn't have to pick up
the phone.

And he didn't have to pick up
the phone.
So construction companies, bond

the phone.
So construction companies, bond
underwriters, you know,

So construction companies, bond
underwriters, you know,
insurance men on every level,

underwriters, you know,
insurance men on every level,
lawyers... I mean, there were

insurance men on every level,
lawyers... I mean, there were
just phalanxes and phalanxes of

lawyers... I mean, there were
just phalanxes and phalanxes of
people.

Just phalanxes and phalanxes of
people.
And, you know, the wheels within

people.
And, you know, the wheels within
wheels, we still don't really

And, you know, the wheels within
wheels, we still don't really
understand.

Wheels, we still don't really
understand.
As the depression

understand.
As the depression
wore on, Robert Moses would

As the depression
wore on, Robert Moses would
create more than a dozen public

wore on, Robert Moses would
create more than a dozen public
authorities, integrating them

create more than a dozen public
authorities, integrating them
into an immense, self-

authorities, integrating them
into an immense, self-
perpetuating machine for

into an immense, self-
perpetuating machine for
building public works, a system

perpetuating machine for
building public works, a system
increasingly remote from the

building public works, a system
increasingly remote from the
public in whose name they had

increasingly remote from the
public in whose name they had
been created... an irony not lost

public in whose name they had
been created... an irony not lost
on some of Moses's closest

been created... an irony not lost
on some of Moses's closest
admirers.

On some of Moses's closest
admirers.
Frances Perkins, who

admirers.
Frances Perkins, who
was Roosevelt's secretary of

Frances Perkins, who
was Roosevelt's secretary of
labor, put it very well.

Was Roosevelt's secretary of
labor, put it very well.
She was reacting to Moses having

labor, put it very well.
She was reacting to Moses having
a tantrum about the people in

She was reacting to Moses having
a tantrum about the people in
Jones Beach, that they threw

a tantrum about the people in
Jones Beach, that they threw
litter on the beach and didn't

Jones Beach, that they threw
litter on the beach and didn't
clean up.

Litter on the beach and didn't
clean up.
Moses said, "I'll get them.

Clean up.
Moses said, "I'll get them.
I'll fix them."

Moses said, "I'll get them.
I'll fix them."
And Perkins said, "He loves the

I'll fix them."
And Perkins said, "He loves the
public, but he hates people."

And Perkins said, "He loves the
public, but he hates people."
And I think that probably

public, but he hates people."
And I think that probably
describes a lot of other public

And I think that probably
describes a lot of other public
officials, too, including many

describes a lot of other public
officials, too, including many
who've done wonderful things.

Officials, too, including many
who've done wonderful things.
But I think, with Moses, the

who've done wonderful things.
But I think, with Moses, the
hatred of people eventually

But I think, with Moses, the
hatred of people eventually
began to trip him up.

Hatred of people eventually
began to trip him up.
By 1936, tensions

began to trip him up.
By 1936, tensions
had begun to rise between the

By 1936, tensions
had begun to rise between the
city's highest elected official

had begun to rise between the
city's highest elected official
and the hard-driving bureaucrat

city's highest elected official
and the hard-driving bureaucrat
who was his parks commissioner.

And the hard-driving bureaucrat
who was his parks commissioner.
Though they worked well together

who was his parks commissioner.
Though they worked well together
and shared many of the same

Though they worked well together
and shared many of the same
goals, it was becoming

and shared many of the same
goals, it was becoming
increasingly obvious that

goals, it was becoming
increasingly obvious that
Fiorello La Guardia and Robert

increasingly obvious that
Fiorello La Guardia and Robert
Moses embodied radically

Fiorello La Guardia and Robert
Moses embodied radically
different values and attitudes

Moses embodied radically
different values and attitudes
towards the city and its people.

Different values and attitudes
towards the city and its people.
One of the things

towards the city and its people.
One of the things
about La Guardia is that he

One of the things
about La Guardia is that he
really... he appreciated

about La Guardia is that he
really... he appreciated
ethnicity.

Really... he appreciated
ethnicity.
He was hip to ethnic

ethnicity.
He was hip to ethnic
neighborhoods.

He was hip to ethnic
neighborhoods.
He was always going up to

neighborhoods.
He was always going up to
neighborhoods, going into all

He was always going up to
neighborhoods, going into all
the stores, talking to people in

neighborhoods, going into all
the stores, talking to people in
their various languages.

And, you know, he would go and
talk to Ukrainians in Ukrainian,

talk to Ukrainians in Ukrainian,
you know, and they would love

you know, and they would love
him for life.

Him for life.
And, you know, who knows how

And, you know, who knows how
many words he knew in Ukrainian,

many words he knew in Ukrainian,
but he could do that and he

but he could do that and he
loved doing that, you know?
And he loved being sort of on

And he loved being sort of on
the ground.
He loved being on the street.

The ground.
He loved being on the street.
Moses, on the other hand, went

He loved being on the street.
Moses, on the other hand, went
out of his way to highlight his

Moses, on the other hand, went
out of his way to highlight his
distance from those people, his

out of his way to highlight his
distance from those people, his
contempt for them, and his sense

distance from those people, his
contempt for them, and his sense
that he was dedicated to a

contempt for them, and his sense
that he was dedicated to a
larger system, to seeing New

that he was dedicated to a
larger system, to seeing New
York as part of a flow chart,

larger system, to seeing New
York as part of a flow chart,
you know, as part of a flow that

York as part of a flow chart,
you know, as part of a flow that
went all through the country in

you know, as part of a flow that
went all through the country in
which streets, neighborhoods,

went all through the country in
which streets, neighborhoods,
sense of place, ethnic loyalties

which streets, neighborhoods,
sense of place, ethnic loyalties
meant nothing.

Sense of place, ethnic loyalties
meant nothing.
The only thing that really

meant nothing.
The only thing that really
mattered was the flow.

The only thing that really
mattered was the flow.
Infuriated by his

mattered was the flow.
Infuriated by his
inability to rein Robert Moses

Infuriated by his
inability to rein Robert Moses
in, Fiorello La Guardia raged

inability to rein Robert Moses
in, Fiorello La Guardia raged
constantly behind his back,

in, Fiorello La Guardia raged
constantly behind his back,
complaining that "no law, no

constantly behind his back,
complaining that "no law, no
regulation, no budget stops

complaining that "no law, no
regulation, no budget stops
Robert Moses from his appointed

regulation, no budget stops
Robert Moses from his appointed
task."

Robert Moses from his appointed
task."
Moses, for his part, who

task."
Moses, for his part, who
routinely referred to the mayor

Moses, for his part, who
routinely referred to the mayor
as "that little organ grinder"

routinely referred to the mayor
as "that little organ grinder"
and "that dago son of a bitch,"

as "that little organ grinder"
and "that dago son of a bitch,"
chafed at the necessity of

and "that dago son of a bitch,"
chafed at the necessity of
having to ask for money every

chafed at the necessity of
having to ask for money every
time he wanted to build.

Having to ask for money every
time he wanted to build.
To some degree, La

time he wanted to build.
To some degree, La
Guardia did control Moses, and

To some degree, La
Guardia did control Moses, and
you see it in housing, because

Guardia did control Moses, and
you see it in housing, because
Moses wanted to take over public

you see it in housing, because
Moses wanted to take over public
housing.

Moses wanted to take over public
housing.
Moses tries to steal the housing

housing.
Moses tries to steal the housing
money and the housing authority

Moses tries to steal the housing
money and the housing authority
from La Guardia by mobilizing

money and the housing authority
from La Guardia by mobilizing
the real-estate forces of the

from La Guardia by mobilizing
the real-estate forces of the
city behind him, but La Guardia

the real-estate forces of the
city behind him, but La Guardia
stops him.

City behind him, but La Guardia
stops him.
He was, in his own way, just as

stops him.
He was, in his own way, just as
tough as Robert Moses.

He was, in his own way, just as
tough as Robert Moses.
And what he basically did was,

tough as Robert Moses.
And what he basically did was,
as Moses is making this radio

And what he basically did was,
as Moses is making this radio
speech to mobilize public

as Moses is making this radio
speech to mobilize public
support over the municipal radio

speech to mobilize public
support over the municipal radio
station, La Guardia actually has

support over the municipal radio
station, La Guardia actually has
the engineers cut the station

station, La Guardia actually has
the engineers cut the station
off the air.

So La Guardia kept Moses out of
housing.
In the end,

In the end,
however, even La Guardia himself
failed to grasp the sheer scale

however, even La Guardia himself
failed to grasp the sheer scale
of the forces overtaking New

failed to grasp the sheer scale
of the forces overtaking New
York during the New Deal or how

of the forces overtaking New
York during the New Deal or how
much the future of the city lay,

York during the New Deal or how
much the future of the city lay,
not with the street and the

much the future of the city lay,
not with the street and the
block and the neighborhoods he

not with the street and the
block and the neighborhoods he
loved, but with the car and the

block and the neighborhoods he
loved, but with the car and the
highway and with men like Robert

loved, but with the car and the
highway and with men like Robert
Moses.

Highway and with men like Robert
Moses.
By the mid 1930s, Fiorello La

Moses.
By the mid 1930s, Fiorello La
Guardia and Robert Moses had

By the mid 1930s, Fiorello La
Guardia and Robert Moses had
succeeded in turning New York

Guardia and Robert Moses had
succeeded in turning New York
into the gigantic laboratory of

succeeded in turning New York
into the gigantic laboratory of
civic reconstruction La Guardia

into the gigantic laboratory of
civic reconstruction La Guardia
had dreamed of.

Civic reconstruction La Guardia
had dreamed of.
But all the new building could

had dreamed of.
But all the new building could
not disguise the fact that

But all the new building could
not disguise the fact that
across the city terrible

not disguise the fact that
across the city terrible
suffering and hardship remained.

Across the city terrible
suffering and hardship remained.
Nowhere was the suffering worse

suffering and hardship remained.
Nowhere was the suffering worse
than on the densely crowded

Nowhere was the suffering worse
than on the densely crowded
streets and avenues of Harlem,

than on the densely crowded
streets and avenues of Harlem,
where, little more than a year

streets and avenues of Harlem,
where, little more than a year
after La Guardia took office,

where, little more than a year
after La Guardia took office,
three decades of relative racial

after La Guardia took office,
three decades of relative racial
calm in New York came to a

three decades of relative racial
calm in New York came to a
tragic, violent end.

Calm in New York came to a
tragic, violent end.
"What happens

tragic, violent end.
"What happens
to a dream deferred?

"What happens
to a dream deferred?
Does it dry up

to a dream deferred?
Does it dry up
like a raisin in the sun?

Does it dry up
like a raisin in the sun?
Or fester like a sore...

Like a raisin in the sun?
Or fester like a sore...
And then run?

Or fester like a sore...
And then run?
Does it stink like rotten meat?

And then run?
Does it stink like rotten meat?
Or crust and sugar over...

Does it stink like rotten meat?
Or crust and sugar over...
Like a syrupy sweet?

Or crust and sugar over...
Like a syrupy sweet?
Maybe it just sags

Like a syrupy sweet?
Maybe it just sags
Like a heavy load.

Maybe it just sags
Like a heavy load.
Or does it explode?"

Like a heavy load.
Or does it explode?"
Langston Hughes.

Or does it explode?"
Langston Hughes.
More than anywhere

Langston Hughes.
More than anywhere
else in the city, Harlem, the

More than anywhere
else in the city, Harlem, the
proud black capital that had

else in the city, Harlem, the
proud black capital that had
arisen so spectacularly only two

proud black capital that had
arisen so spectacularly only two
decades before, had been all but

arisen so spectacularly only two
decades before, had been all but
devastated by the depression.

Decades before, had been all but
devastated by the depression.
The renaissance of the 1920s had

devastated by the depression.
The renaissance of the 1920s had
been a cultural triumph, not an

The renaissance of the 1920s had
been a cultural triumph, not an
economic one, and long before

been a cultural triumph, not an
economic one, and long before
the crash itself the district's

economic one, and long before
the crash itself the district's
fragile prosperity had begun to

the crash itself the district's
fragile prosperity had begun to
disintegrate.

It became a slum.

Became a slum.
It had been a ghetto before.

It had been a ghetto before.
It becomes a real slum

It becomes a real slum
afterwards.
After the depression, rents,

After the depression, rents,
evictions, unemployment,
tuberculosis, all the indicia of

evictions, unemployment,
tuberculosis, all the indicia of
decay and dysfunction accelerate

tuberculosis, all the indicia of
decay and dysfunction accelerate
so that Harlem becomes a place

decay and dysfunction accelerate
so that Harlem becomes a place
in which the opportunities that

so that Harlem becomes a place
in which the opportunities that
had brought it into being really

in which the opportunities that
had brought it into being really
become almost exceptional.

Had brought it into being really
become almost exceptional.
I think the major

become almost exceptional.
I think the major
difference is that in the 1920s,

I think the major
difference is that in the 1920s,
Harlem really did believe in

difference is that in the 1920s,
Harlem really did believe in
mobility and most people

Harlem really did believe in
mobility and most people
believed the concepts of

mobility and most people
believed the concepts of
American mobility applied to

believed the concepts of
American mobility applied to
Harlem.

You had a population of people
who were already depending upon

who were already depending upon
rather menial jobs to sustain

rather menial jobs to sustain
themselves.

Themselves.
The hope was that with regular

The hope was that with regular
employment and with the other

employment and with the other
opportunities that cities

opportunities that cities
provided... education, better

provided... education, better
housing, better living

housing, better living
conditions, better health care...

Conditions, better health care...
there would be mobility.
By the 1930s, all of that gets

By the 1930s, all of that gets
challenged.
First of all, that category that

challenged.
First of all, that category that
was referred to as Negro jobs

First of all, that category that
was referred to as Negro jobs
disappears because white New

was referred to as Negro jobs
disappears because white New
Yorkers desperate for work begin

disappears because white New
Yorkers desperate for work begin
to demand positions that they

Yorkers desperate for work begin
to demand positions that they
formerly refused to take.

To demand positions that they
formerly refused to take.
It's a truism, but

formerly refused to take.
It's a truism, but
it's true, that the depression

It's a truism, but
it's true, that the depression
was far worse in Harlem than

it's true, that the depression
was far worse in Harlem than
anywhere else.

Was far worse in Harlem than
anywhere else.
The levels of unemployment are

anywhere else.
The levels of unemployment are
simply spectacular.

The levels of unemployment are
simply spectacular.
And remember, there had already

simply spectacular.
And remember, there had already
been discrimination, even in

And remember, there had already
been discrimination, even in
good times.

Been discrimination, even in
good times.
I mean, the hospitals would not

good times.
I mean, the hospitals would not
hire blacks.

I mean, the hospitals would not
hire blacks.
The drugstores would not hire

hire blacks.
The drugstores would not hire
blacks.

The drugstores would not hire
blacks.
The insurance companies, even

blacks.
The insurance companies, even
though they wrote, you know,

The insurance companies, even
though they wrote, you know,
thousands of policies, low-cost

though they wrote, you know,
thousands of policies, low-cost
policies to Harlem residents,

thousands of policies, low-cost
policies to Harlem residents,
they wouldn't hire blacks.

And even when the depression
starts and there are relief

starts and there are relief
programs in place, the WPA

programs in place, the WPA
discriminates as well.
In the 1930s, Robert

In the 1930s, Robert
Moses built 255 new playgrounds
in New York City.

Moses built 255 new playgrounds
in New York City.
He built two in areas that black

in New York City.
He built two in areas that black
children could use.

He built two in areas that black
children could use.
You know, white children were

children could use.
You know, white children were
given sliding boards and swings

You know, white children were
given sliding boards and swings
and beautiful little wading

given sliding boards and swings
and beautiful little wading
pools in the playgrounds.

And beautiful little wading
pools in the playgrounds.
Black children could still play

pools in the playgrounds.
Black children could still play
with their broomsticks in the

Black children could still play
with their broomsticks in the
streets if they wanted to play

with their broomsticks in the
streets if they wanted to play
baseball, still had to splash

streets if they wanted to play
baseball, still had to splash
through the fire hydrants.

Baseball, still had to splash
through the fire hydrants.
People know if a city cares for

through the fire hydrants.
People know if a city cares for
them or not.

People know if a city cares for
them or not.
A playground is a lot more than

them or not.
A playground is a lot more than
a playground.

A playground is a lot more than
a playground.
A little vest-pocket park is a

a playground.
A little vest-pocket park is a
lot more than a little bit of

A little vest-pocket park is a
lot more than a little bit of
green.

Lot more than a little bit of
green.
It's a sign that the city cares,

green.
It's a sign that the city cares,
that it's willing to devote

It's a sign that the city cares,
that it's willing to devote
something to your neighborhood.

That it's willing to devote
something to your neighborhood.
What did the mothers of Harlem

something to your neighborhood.
What did the mothers of Harlem
think of the policies of the

What did the mothers of Harlem
think of the policies of the
state when there was no place

think of the policies of the
state when there was no place
for their children to play?

State when there was no place
for their children to play?
Even more insidious

for their children to play?
Even more insidious
for the city's black population

Even more insidious
for the city's black population
in the end were the federal

for the city's black population
in the end were the federal
mortgage and loan programs

in the end were the federal
mortgage and loan programs
promulgated by the New Deal

mortgage and loan programs
promulgated by the New Deal
which, to revive the moribund

promulgated by the New Deal
which, to revive the moribund
housing market in the outer

which, to revive the moribund
housing market in the outer
boroughs, set in motion a

housing market in the outer
boroughs, set in motion a
fateful process that in the next

boroughs, set in motion a
fateful process that in the next
two decades would systematically

fateful process that in the next
two decades would systematically
segregate neighborhood after

two decades would systematically
segregate neighborhood after
neighborhood in New York by

segregate neighborhood after
neighborhood in New York by
race.

Neighborhood in New York by
race.
African American

race.
African American
ghettoization really begins in

African American
ghettoization really begins in
the third decade of the 20th

ghettoization really begins in
the third decade of the 20th
century.

The third decade of the 20th
century.
It begins in the 1930s.

Century.
It begins in the 1930s.
It begins with New Deal policy.

It begins in the 1930s.
It begins with New Deal policy.
It begins with the federal

It begins with New Deal policy.
It begins with the federal
government and the state

It begins with the federal
government and the state
government colluding with banks

government and the state
government colluding with banks
and insurance companies to solve

government colluding with banks
and insurance companies to solve
New Deal problems by building,

and insurance companies to solve
New Deal problems by building,
building, building, building,

New Deal problems by building,
building, building, building,
building.

Building, building, building,
building.
We're building housing at the

building.
We're building housing at the
periphery of the city at an

We're building housing at the
periphery of the city at an
incredible pace, and in order to

periphery of the city at an
incredible pace, and in order to
create a market for that

incredible pace, and in order to
create a market for that
housing, you've got to force

create a market for that
housing, you've got to force
white working-class and middle-

housing, you've got to force
white working-class and middle-
class families to move.

White working-class and middle-
class families to move.
And in order to get them out

class families to move.
And in order to get them out
there, what we do is actually

And in order to get them out
there, what we do is actually
make it irrational to stay

there, what we do is actually
make it irrational to stay
inside the city.

Make it irrational to stay
inside the city.
During the early years of the

inside the city.
During the early years of the
New Deal, the federal government

During the early years of the
New Deal, the federal government
established the Homeowner's Loan

New Deal, the federal government
established the Homeowner's Loan
Corporation and the Homeowner's

established the Homeowner's Loan
Corporation and the Homeowner's
Loan Corporation actually went

Corporation and the Homeowner's
Loan Corporation actually went
out in Brooklyn and they begin

Loan Corporation actually went
out in Brooklyn and they begin
mapping out the borough into 66

out in Brooklyn and they begin
mapping out the borough into 66
neighborhoods, going block by

mapping out the borough into 66
neighborhoods, going block by
block and finding every black,

neighborhoods, going block by
block and finding every black,
Latino, Irish, Jewish, Italian,

block and finding every black,
Latino, Irish, Jewish, Italian,
Polish family that was there and

Latino, Irish, Jewish, Italian,
Polish family that was there and
assigning ratings to each

Polish family that was there and
assigning ratings to each
neighborhood based on the racial

assigning ratings to each
neighborhood based on the racial
and ethnic makeup.

Neighborhood based on the racial
and ethnic makeup.
Then they distributed the maps

and ethnic makeup.
Then they distributed the maps
to banks and held banks to a

Then they distributed the maps
to banks and held banks to a
certain standard when loaning

to banks and held banks to a
certain standard when loaning
money for homes and rental.

Certain standard when loaning
money for homes and rental.
The consequences of having your

money for homes and rental.
The consequences of having your
ratings go down is, of course,

The consequences of having your
ratings go down is, of course,
that your housing property goes

ratings go down is, of course,
that your housing property goes
down.

That your housing property goes
down.
So for instance, white

down.
So for instance, white
Brooklynites living in the old

So for instance, white
Brooklynites living in the old
sections of North Brooklyn, all

Brooklynites living in the old
sections of North Brooklyn, all
of a sudden find out that their

sections of North Brooklyn, all
of a sudden find out that their
housing is less valuable, not

of a sudden find out that their
housing is less valuable, not
because they've done anything

housing is less valuable, not
because they've done anything
and not because their

because they've done anything
and not because their
neighborhood has changed, but

and not because their
neighborhood has changed, but
because banks won't lend anyone

neighborhood has changed, but
because banks won't lend anyone
money to move there unless those

because banks won't lend anyone
money to move there unless those
people are black.

Money to move there unless those
people are black.
After the Homeowner's Loan

people are black.
After the Homeowner's Loan
Corporation began segregating on

After the Homeowner's Loan
Corporation began segregating on
the federal level and working

Corporation began segregating on
the federal level and working
with local banks in Brooklyn,

the federal level and working
with local banks in Brooklyn,
Manhattan, and the Bronx, and

with local banks in Brooklyn,
Manhattan, and the Bronx, and
Queens, the state gets involved

Manhattan, and the Bronx, and
Queens, the state gets involved
in redlining.

Queens, the state gets involved
in redlining.
They also map out Brooklyn.

In redlining.
They also map out Brooklyn.
They go block by block and this

They also map out Brooklyn.
They go block by block and this
time they look for only black

They go block by block and this
time they look for only black
and Latino persons and a single

time they look for only black
and Latino persons and a single
black person living on a block

and Latino persons and a single
black person living on a block
is enough to redline a block.

Black person living on a block
is enough to redline a block.
The effect will be, in fact, to

is enough to redline a block.
The effect will be, in fact, to
do extraordinary damage to black

The effect will be, in fact, to
do extraordinary damage to black
communities throughout New York.

Do extraordinary damage to black
communities throughout New York.
All of a sudden, black

communities throughout New York.
All of a sudden, black
communities that had been

All of a sudden, black
communities that had been
scattered throughout New York

communities that had been
scattered throughout New York
City, which had long traditions

scattered throughout New York
City, which had long traditions
in certain neighborhoods in the

City, which had long traditions
in certain neighborhoods in the
southern part of New York,

in certain neighborhoods in the
southern part of New York,
throughout Brooklyn and Queens

southern part of New York,
throughout Brooklyn and Queens
and even on Staten Island, were

throughout Brooklyn and Queens
and even on Staten Island, were
being physically segregated,

and even on Staten Island, were
being physically segregated,
rooted up.

Being physically segregated,
rooted up.
When the Homeowner's Loan

rooted up.
When the Homeowner's Loan
Corporation finishes its work in

When the Homeowner's Loan
Corporation finishes its work in
the 1940s, it has dramatically

Corporation finishes its work in
the 1940s, it has dramatically
altered the makeup of Brooklyn.

The 1940s, it has dramatically
altered the makeup of Brooklyn.
In 1930, when the depression

altered the makeup of Brooklyn.
In 1930, when the depression
starts, black Brooklynites were

In 1930, when the depression
starts, black Brooklynites were
actually the least segregated

starts, black Brooklynites were
actually the least segregated
group physically in the borough.

Actually the least segregated
group physically in the borough.
By 1950, they're the most

group physically in the borough.
By 1950, they're the most
segregated group.

By 1950, they're the most
segregated group.
The segregation is all in

segregated group.
The segregation is all in
central Brooklyn in the Bedford-

The segregation is all in
central Brooklyn in the Bedford-
Stuyvesant district and that

central Brooklyn in the Bedford-
Stuyvesant district and that
will become the largest black

Stuyvesant district and that
will become the largest black
ghetto in the United States by

will become the largest black
ghetto in the United States by
the end of the 1960s.

Ghetto in the United States by
the end of the 1960s.
In the 1930s, Harlem goes from

the end of the 1960s.
In the 1930s, Harlem goes from
being an ethnic community with

In the 1930s, Harlem goes from
being an ethnic community with
quite a bit of mobility and

being an ethnic community with
quite a bit of mobility and
optimism, to a racial slum with

quite a bit of mobility and
optimism, to a racial slum with
very little optimism, very

optimism, to a racial slum with
very little optimism, very
little hope.

Very little optimism, very
little hope.
The Federal government had armed

little hope.
The Federal government had armed
banks and insurance companies

The Federal government had armed
banks and insurance companies
and real-estate dealers with the

banks and insurance companies
and real-estate dealers with the
public authority to keep black

and real-estate dealers with the
public authority to keep black
people inside that physical

public authority to keep black
people inside that physical
space and to force new black

people inside that physical
space and to force new black
migrants to the city inside

space and to force new black
migrants to the city inside
similar physical spaces.

Migrants to the city inside
similar physical spaces.
So that as Harlem expands in the

similar physical spaces.
So that as Harlem expands in the
1930s and the 1940s, as Bedford-

So that as Harlem expands in the
1930s and the 1940s, as Bedford-
Stuyvesant expands in the '40s

1930s and the 1940s, as Bedford-
Stuyvesant expands in the '40s
and '50s, what remains true

Stuyvesant expands in the '40s
and '50s, what remains true
about them is black communities

and '50s, what remains true
about them is black communities
no longer control their own

about them is black communities
no longer control their own
destiny.

No longer control their own
destiny.
By the '50s and '60s, they're

destiny.
By the '50s and '60s, they're
being forced and physically

By the '50s and '60s, they're
being forced and physically
quarantined inside the city at a

being forced and physically
quarantined inside the city at a
time when white Americans are

quarantined inside the city at a
time when white Americans are
peculiarly mobile.

Time when white Americans are
peculiarly mobile.
Why is there a black ghetto in

peculiarly mobile.
Why is there a black ghetto in
every city in the United States?

Why is there a black ghetto in
every city in the United States?
The answer is public policy, the

every city in the United States?
The answer is public policy, the
way we remap cities racially in

The answer is public policy, the
way we remap cities racially in
order to solve economic crises.

Way we remap cities racially in
order to solve economic crises.
Year after year,

order to solve economic crises.
Year after year,
the walls of racial segregation

Year after year,
the walls of racial segregation
and discrimination closed in

the walls of racial segregation
and discrimination closed in
around the city's African

and discrimination closed in
around the city's African
American population.

Around the city's African
American population.
To some, the most infuriating

American population.
To some, the most infuriating
bigotry of all was to be found

To some, the most infuriating
bigotry of all was to be found
in the heart of Harlem itself,

bigotry of all was to be found
in the heart of Harlem itself,
where almost none of the dozens

in the heart of Harlem itself,
where almost none of the dozens
of white-owned shops and

where almost none of the dozens
of white-owned shops and
businesses that lined 125th

of white-owned shops and
businesses that lined 125th
Street, the commercial spine of

businesses that lined 125th
Street, the commercial spine of
the district, was willing to

Street, the commercial spine of
the district, was willing to
hire African Americans in any

the district, was willing to
hire African Americans in any
capacity.

Hire African Americans in any
capacity.
And church groups

capacity.
And church groups
and labor groups and socialist

And church groups
and labor groups and socialist
groups and black nationalist

and labor groups and socialist
groups and black nationalist
groups and the Communist Party,

groups and black nationalist
groups and the Communist Party,
among others, begin to set up

groups and the Communist Party,
among others, begin to set up
pickets on 125th Street and

among others, begin to set up
pickets on 125th Street and
other places.

Pickets on 125th Street and
other places.
They march in front of these

other places.
They march in front of these
stores and say, "Don't buy where

They march in front of these
stores and say, "Don't buy where
you can't work."

stores and say, "Don't buy where
you can't work."
And, in fact, this heartens the

you can't work."
And, in fact, this heartens the
community.

And, in fact, this heartens the
community.
There are some successes.

Community.
There are some successes.
Some job openings are created.

There are some successes.
Some job openings are created.
But then the forces of the law

Some job openings are created.
But then the forces of the law
being what they are, the store

But then the forces of the law
being what they are, the store
owners get an injunction passed

being what they are, the store
owners get an injunction passed
in '34 and this kind of

owners get an injunction passed
in '34 and this kind of
picketing behavior is, in fact,

in '34 and this kind of
picketing behavior is, in fact,
banned.

Picketing behavior is, in fact,
banned.
So having gotten themselves

banned.
So having gotten themselves
together, having come up with a

So having gotten themselves
together, having come up with a
communal collective voice to

together, having come up with a
communal collective voice to
attempt to redress long-standing

communal collective voice to
attempt to redress long-standing
racial/economic grievances,

attempt to redress long-standing
racial/economic grievances,
suddenly that voice is cut off.

Racial/economic grievances,
suddenly that voice is cut off.
And it's in that context that

suddenly that voice is cut off.
And it's in that context that
Harlem explodes.

And it's in that context that
Harlem explodes.
In the winter of

Harlem explodes.
In the winter of
1935, years of rising misery,

In the winter of
1935, years of rising misery,
frustration, and resentment

1935, years of rising misery,
frustration, and resentment
erupted into violence on the

frustration, and resentment
erupted into violence on the
streets of Harlem.

Erupted into violence on the
streets of Harlem.
Around 3:30 on the afternoon of

streets of Harlem.
Around 3:30 on the afternoon of
March 19th, a 16-year-old Puerto

Around 3:30 on the afternoon of
March 19th, a 16-year-old Puerto
Rican boy named Lino Riveria was

March 19th, a 16-year-old Puerto
Rican boy named Lino Riveria was
caught stealing a penknife from

Rican boy named Lino Riveria was
caught stealing a penknife from
an S.H. Kress store on 125th

caught stealing a penknife from
an S.H. Kress store on 125th
Street.

An S.H. Kress store on 125th
Street.
A scuffle ensued, and as a crowd

Street.
A scuffle ensued, and as a crowd
of curious onlookers gathered on

A scuffle ensued, and as a crowd
of curious onlookers gathered on
the sidewalk outside, the shop

of curious onlookers gathered on
the sidewalk outside, the shop
owner called the police, urging

the sidewalk outside, the shop
owner called the police, urging
the patrolman, when he arrived,

owner called the police, urging
the patrolman, when he arrived,
to avoid further trouble and let

the patrolman, when he arrived,
to avoid further trouble and let
the boy go.

To avoid further trouble and let
the boy go.
They actually let

the boy go.
They actually let
Riveria go out a back door and

They actually let
Riveria go out a back door and
they didn't bother informing

Riveria go out a back door and
they didn't bother informing
anybody.

They didn't bother informing
anybody.
And rumors now shot through the

anybody.
And rumors now shot through the
street that he'd been killed.

And rumors now shot through the
street that he'd been killed.
And, in fact, crowds begin to

street that he'd been killed.
And, in fact, crowds begin to
form.

And, in fact, crowds begin to
form.
By the evening, people are

form.
By the evening, people are
arriving with placards and

By the evening, people are
arriving with placards and
pickets.

Arriving with placards and
pickets.
And eventually somebody hurls a

pickets.
And eventually somebody hurls a
rock through the plate-glass

And eventually somebody hurls a
rock through the plate-glass
window and Harlem explodes.

Rock through the plate-glass
window and Harlem explodes.
And people pour out of the

window and Harlem explodes.
And people pour out of the
tenements into the streets and

And people pour out of the
tenements into the streets and
they not only attack and loot

tenements into the streets and
they not only attack and loot
this particular store, but up

they not only attack and loot
this particular store, but up
and down 125th Street and other

this particular store, but up
and down 125th Street and other
areas, except for stores that

and down 125th Street and other
areas, except for stores that
hastily tack up placards in

areas, except for stores that
hastily tack up placards in
their front window, "Black-owned

hastily tack up placards in
their front window, "Black-owned
business," you know, or if it's

their front window, "Black-owned
business," you know, or if it's
a white store, "We hire black

business," you know, or if it's
a white store, "We hire black
people."

a white store, "We hire black
people."
And in fact, they were,

people."
And in fact, they were,
relatively speaking, spared.

And in fact, they were,
relatively speaking, spared.
There are also tangles with the

relatively speaking, spared.
There are also tangles with the
police.

There are also tangles with the
police.
You have to understand it's a

police.
You have to understand it's a
virtually entirely white police

You have to understand it's a
virtually entirely white police
force.

Virtually entirely white police
force.
It is seen as an army of

force.
It is seen as an army of
occupation, sitting on the

It is seen as an army of
occupation, sitting on the
discontent that's been building.

Occupation, sitting on the
discontent that's been building.
All through the

discontent that's been building.
All through the
night and on into the next day

All through the
night and on into the next day
the riot went on.

Night and on into the next day
the riot went on.
By the time order was restored,

the riot went on.
By the time order was restored,
125 people had been arrested,

By the time order was restored,
125 people had been arrested,
over 100 had been injured, and

125 people had been arrested,
over 100 had been injured, and
three killed... all of them

over 100 had been injured, and
three killed... all of them
black.

Three killed... all of them
black.
This is the first

black.
This is the first
black explosion.

This is the first
black explosion.
Up until this point when you

black explosion.
Up until this point when you
talk race riots, you're talking

Up until this point when you
talk race riots, you're talking
about whites pouring into a

talk race riots, you're talking
about whites pouring into a
black neighborhood, stomping on

about whites pouring into a
black neighborhood, stomping on
black people... the Draft Riots

black neighborhood, stomping on
black people... the Draft Riots
of 1863.

Black people... the Draft Riots
of 1863.
Nobody for 20 years has been

of 1863.
Nobody for 20 years has been
dreaming of invading black

Nobody for 20 years has been
dreaming of invading black
Harlem; it's a huge stronghold.

Dreaming of invading black
Harlem; it's a huge stronghold.
But now you've got a whole new

Harlem; it's a huge stronghold.
But now you've got a whole new
phenomenon.

But now you've got a whole new
phenomenon.
I think one of the

phenomenon.
I think one of the
major things that the riot does

I think one of the
major things that the riot does
is it actually forces us to

major things that the riot does
is it actually forces us to
seriously look at the condition

is it actually forces us to
seriously look at the condition
of black Americans in major

seriously look at the condition
of black Americans in major
cities.

Of black Americans in major
cities.
New York becomes sort of a

cities.
New York becomes sort of a
harbinger for what's going to

New York becomes sort of a
harbinger for what's going to
happen other places and you've

harbinger for what's going to
happen other places and you've
got to take New York city

happen other places and you've
got to take New York city
seriously, especially Harlem.

Got to take New York city
seriously, especially Harlem.
It's sitting right in Manhattan.

Seriously, especially Harlem.
It's sitting right in Manhattan.
It's in the cultural and

It's sitting right in Manhattan.
It's in the cultural and
economic capital of the United

It's in the cultural and
economic capital of the United
States and what happens there is

economic capital of the United
States and what happens there is
actually more important than

States and what happens there is
actually more important than
what happens other places.

Actually more important than
what happens other places.
It does get attention.

What happens other places.
It does get attention.
It does force the administration

It does get attention.
It does force the administration
to seriously look at the plight

It does force the administration
to seriously look at the plight
of black Americans, but still

to seriously look at the plight
of black Americans, but still
the response is actually rather

of black Americans, but still
the response is actually rather
weak.

The response is actually rather
weak.
The repercussions

weak.
The repercussions
of the riots would continue for

The repercussions
of the riots would continue for
months and years to come.

Of the riots would continue for
months and years to come.
At the insistence of black

months and years to come.
At the insistence of black
leaders, La Guardia appointed a

At the insistence of black
leaders, La Guardia appointed a
special commission to examine

leaders, La Guardia appointed a
special commission to examine
the social and economic

special commission to examine
the social and economic
conditions in Harlem, whose

the social and economic
conditions in Harlem, whose
report painted a bleak portrait

conditions in Harlem, whose
report painted a bleak portrait
of the city's racial divisions

report painted a bleak portrait
of the city's racial divisions
and inequalities.

Of the city's racial divisions
and inequalities.
But like most white politicians

and inequalities.
But like most white politicians
of his day, the mayor, whom the

But like most white politicians
of his day, the mayor, whom the
black-owned Amsterdam News had

of his day, the mayor, whom the
black-owned Amsterdam News had
praised in 1931 as "one of the

black-owned Amsterdam News had
praised in 1931 as "one of the
most fearless friends the Negro

praised in 1931 as "one of the
most fearless friends the Negro
has ever had in or out of

most fearless friends the Negro
has ever had in or out of
Congress," was still not

has ever had in or out of
Congress," was still not
prepared to put racial equality

Congress," was still not
prepared to put racial equality
at the center of his reform

prepared to put racial equality
at the center of his reform
agenda.

At the center of his reform
agenda.
Speaking before a group of

agenda.
Speaking before a group of
church leaders, he had, he said,

Speaking before a group of
church leaders, he had, he said,
"no illusion about the

church leaders, he had, he said,
"no illusion about the
difficulties facing your people

"no illusion about the
difficulties facing your people
in New York."

difficulties facing your people
in New York."
But reconciling the disparities

in New York."
But reconciling the disparities
caused by American racism, he

But reconciling the disparities
caused by American racism, he
said, was a task beyond his

caused by American racism, he
said, was a task beyond his
abilities.

Said, was a task beyond his
abilities.
I think La Guardia is

abilities.
I think La Guardia is
a difficult person to describe,

I think La Guardia is
a difficult person to describe,
especially his stance on race.

A difficult person to describe,
especially his stance on race.
He endears himself to many

especially his stance on race.
He endears himself to many
African Americans by standing up

He endears himself to many
African Americans by standing up
for people, by standing up for

African Americans by standing up
for people, by standing up for
black congressmen, Oscar

for people, by standing up for
black congressmen, Oscar
DePriest and other folks who had

black congressmen, Oscar
DePriest and other folks who had
been tossed out of Congress, by

DePriest and other folks who had
been tossed out of Congress, by
demanding, in fact, that they be

been tossed out of Congress, by
demanding, in fact, that they be
given equal treatment.

Demanding, in fact, that they be
given equal treatment.
On the other hand, when it came

given equal treatment.
On the other hand, when it came
to real substantive changes that

On the other hand, when it came
to real substantive changes that
would affect African Americans

to real substantive changes that
would affect African Americans
in a positive way, La Guardia

would affect African Americans
in a positive way, La Guardia
tended to, in fact, do what most

in a positive way, La Guardia
tended to, in fact, do what most
mayors of New York City have

tended to, in fact, do what most
mayors of New York City have
done, and that is side with

mayors of New York City have
done, and that is side with
separate and less equal, because

done, and that is side with
separate and less equal, because
the ethnic algebra of the city

separate and less equal, because
the ethnic algebra of the city
allows you to overserve some

the ethnic algebra of the city
allows you to overserve some
people and underserve others and

allows you to overserve some
people and underserve others and
it's a very good formula for

people and underserve others and
it's a very good formula for
getting elected.

It's a very good formula for
getting elected.
"The question of what

getting elected.
"The question of what
will happen to the Negro in New

"The question of what
will happen to the Negro in New
York is overlaid with shadows of

will happen to the Negro in New
York is overlaid with shadows of
tragic premonition.

York is overlaid with shadows of
tragic premonition.
The first race riot in New York

tragic premonition.
The first race riot in New York
was in 1712.

The first race riot in New York
was in 1712.
The most recent was in 1935.

Was in 1712.
The most recent was in 1935.
The last is not yet come."

The most recent was in 1935.
The last is not yet come."
Fortune magazine.

The last is not yet come."
Fortune magazine.
"Bit by bit, the New

Fortune magazine.
"Bit by bit, the New
York of 1920 has rearranged and

"Bit by bit, the New
York of 1920 has rearranged and
expanded itself.

York of 1920 has rearranged and
expanded itself.
New highways sweep beneath its

expanded itself.
New highways sweep beneath its
bold escarpments.

New highways sweep beneath its
bold escarpments.
New housing and new playgrounds

bold escarpments.
New housing and new playgrounds
have been carved from its native

New housing and new playgrounds
have been carved from its native
rock.

Have been carved from its native
rock.
Giant new bridges soar above its

rock.
Giant new bridges soar above its
two rivers and new tubes have

Giant new bridges soar above its
two rivers and new tubes have
burrowed beneath the waters.

Two rivers and new tubes have
burrowed beneath the waters.
For perhaps the first time in

burrowed beneath the waters.
For perhaps the first time in
its ruthless, headlong history,

For perhaps the first time in
its ruthless, headlong history,
some new impulse, something

its ruthless, headlong history,
some new impulse, something
apart from commerce has been

some new impulse, something
apart from commerce has been
acting on the town.

Apart from commerce has been
acting on the town.
Some sense of community design

acting on the town.
Some sense of community design
and purpose has tempered the

Some sense of community design
and purpose has tempered the
obsession with buying and

and purpose has tempered the
obsession with buying and
selling.

Obsession with buying and
selling.
Out of the old demonic energy

selling.
Out of the old demonic energy
has come a new ambition to build

Out of the old demonic energy
has come a new ambition to build
a city more fit for human use

has come a new ambition to build
a city more fit for human use
and aspiration."

a city more fit for human use
and aspiration."
Clair Price.

And aspiration."
Clair Price.
On November 2,

Clair Price.
On November 2,
1937, Fiorello La Guardia pulled

On November 2,
1937, Fiorello La Guardia pulled
off the simple feat that had

1937, Fiorello La Guardia pulled
off the simple feat that had
eluded every reform mayor before

off the simple feat that had
eluded every reform mayor before
him.

Eluded every reform mayor before
him.
He was re-elected.

Him.
He was re-elected.
The largest majority in the

He was re-elected.
The largest majority in the
city's history swept him back

The largest majority in the
city's history swept him back
into office, along with a host

city's history swept him back
into office, along with a host
of reform candidates, including

into office, along with a host
of reform candidates, including
the president of every borough

of reform candidates, including
the president of every borough
except the Bronx.

The president of every borough
except the Bronx.
La Guardia himself took the

except the Bronx.
La Guardia himself took the
landslide as a ringing

La Guardia himself took the
landslide as a ringing
endorsement of his policies and

landslide as a ringing
endorsement of his policies and
a mandate to lead New York into

endorsement of his policies and
a mandate to lead New York into
a still brighter future.

A mandate to lead New York into
a still brighter future.
"We are going to make the city a

a still brighter future.
"We are going to make the city a
real heaven," he said.

But what was
passed down to me by my mother,

passed down to me by my mother,
my father, by people in the

my father, by people in the
neighborhood was his absolute

neighborhood was his absolute
exuberant optimism.
"We're going to get through

"We're going to get through
this."
"This is a depression."

this."
"This is a depression."
"The hell with it, we'll go."

"This is a depression."
"The hell with it, we'll go."
"The mob has everything fixed."

"The hell with it, we'll go."
"The mob has everything fixed."
"The hell with it, we'll throw

"The mob has everything fixed."
"The hell with it, we'll throw
their slot machines in the

"The hell with it, we'll throw
their slot machines in the
river.

Their slot machines in the
river.
You don't like this?

River.
You don't like this?
The hell with it, let's go do it

You don't like this?
The hell with it, let's go do it
anyway."

The hell with it, let's go do it
anyway."
"It's the depression.

Anyway."
"It's the depression.
You can't build an airport."

"It's the depression.
You can't build an airport."
"This is New York.

You can't build an airport."
"This is New York.
You got to have an airport."

"This is New York.
You got to have an airport."
In 1934, La Guardia

You got to have an airport."
In 1934, La Guardia
takes a flight from Chicago to

In 1934, La Guardia
takes a flight from Chicago to
New York, it says on his ticket,

takes a flight from Chicago to
New York, it says on his ticket,
and as usual the airplane lands

New York, it says on his ticket,
and as usual the airplane lands
in Newark Airport and he refuses

and as usual the airplane lands
in Newark Airport and he refuses
to get out.

In Newark Airport and he refuses
to get out.
"My ticket says New York.

To get out.
"My ticket says New York.
This is not New York.

"My ticket says New York.
This is not New York.
This is New Jersey."

This is not New York.
This is New Jersey."
And after everybody else gets

This is New Jersey."
And after everybody else gets
off, the airplane takes off with

And after everybody else gets
off, the airplane takes off with
only La Guardia in it and lands

off, the airplane takes off with
only La Guardia in it and lands
at Floyd Bennett Field.

Only La Guardia in it and lands
at Floyd Bennett Field.
And from the first day that he's

at Floyd Bennett Field.
And from the first day that he's
mayor, he is pushing for the

And from the first day that he's
mayor, he is pushing for the
construction of what is going to

mayor, he is pushing for the
construction of what is going to
be La Guardia Airport.

Construction of what is going to
be La Guardia Airport.
And again it is the New Deal

be La Guardia Airport.
And again it is the New Deal
money that makes this possible.

And again it is the New Deal
money that makes this possible.
The biggest program that the WPA

money that makes this possible.
The biggest program that the WPA
undertook anywhere in the

The biggest program that the WPA
undertook anywhere in the
country was the construction of

undertook anywhere in the
country was the construction of
La Guardia Airport.

Country was the construction of
La Guardia Airport.
And he is out there every day.

La Guardia Airport.
And he is out there every day.
He is, you know, hands on.

And he is out there every day.
He is, you know, hands on.
He is watching the construction

He is, you know, hands on.
He is watching the construction
of this thing because he

He is watching the construction
of this thing because he
understands that this is the

of this thing because he
understands that this is the
next link, you know, that the

understands that this is the
next link, you know, that the
city has always thrived on

next link, you know, that the
city has always thrived on
linkages, on connectivity.

City has always thrived on
linkages, on connectivity.
There has been the Black Ball

linkages, on connectivity.
There has been the Black Ball
Line, you know, connection, the

There has been the Black Ball
Line, you know, connection, the
Erie Canal Line connection, and

Line, you know, connection, the
Erie Canal Line connection, and
the Atlantic cable connection,

Erie Canal Line connection, and
the Atlantic cable connection,
and the steamboat and the

the Atlantic cable connection,
and the steamboat and the
steamer connection.

And the steamboat and the
steamer connection.
This is the 20th century's great

steamer connection.
This is the 20th century's great
linkage to be made and he seizes

This is the 20th century's great
linkage to be made and he seizes
it.

Linkage to be made and he seizes
it.
But for all the

it.
But for all the
accomplishments of La Guardia's

But for all the
accomplishments of La Guardia's
first term, no one was more

accomplishments of La Guardia's
first term, no one was more
aware than La Guardia himself

first term, no one was more
aware than La Guardia himself
how much remained to be done,

aware than La Guardia himself
how much remained to be done,
and five years into his tenure

how much remained to be done,
and five years into his tenure
in city hall he continued to

and five years into his tenure
in city hall he continued to
drive himself at a pace that

in city hall he continued to
drive himself at a pace that
amazed and increasingly worried

drive himself at a pace that
amazed and increasingly worried
his closest associates.

Amazed and increasingly worried
his closest associates.
Of them all, none was closer

his closest associates.
Of them all, none was closer
than Charles C. Burlingham, a

Of them all, none was closer
than Charles C. Burlingham, a
legendary, 81-year-old lawyer

than Charles C. Burlingham, a
legendary, 81-year-old lawyer
and civic reformer, widely known

legendary, 81-year-old lawyer
and civic reformer, widely known
as "New York's first citizen."

and civic reformer, widely known
as "New York's first citizen."
The distinguished barrister was

as "New York's first citizen."
The distinguished barrister was
as proud as anyone in the city

The distinguished barrister was
as proud as anyone in the city
of the progress La Guardia had

as proud as anyone in the city
of the progress La Guardia had
made in turning New York into

of the progress La Guardia had
made in turning New York into
what the mayor himself called

made in turning New York into
what the mayor himself called
"the world's greatest experiment

what the mayor himself called
"the world's greatest experiment
in social and political

"the world's greatest experiment
in social and political
democracy."

in social and political
democracy."
But he had come to fear for the

democracy."
But he had come to fear for the
health and well-being of the

But he had come to fear for the
health and well-being of the
driven little mayor who had come

health and well-being of the
driven little mayor who had come
to identify himself so

driven little mayor who had come
to identify himself so
completely with the people of

to identify himself so
completely with the people of
New York City.

Completely with the people of
New York City.
"You are a very tired man and

New York City.
"You are a very tired man and
must get some rest," Burlingham

"You are a very tired man and
must get some rest," Burlingham
wrote in a confidential letter

must get some rest," Burlingham
wrote in a confidential letter
to the mayor.

Wrote in a confidential letter
to the mayor.
"When I drive through the vast

to the mayor.
"When I drive through the vast
reaches of the Bronx and see the

"When I drive through the vast
reaches of the Bronx and see the
swarming myriads, I say to

reaches of the Bronx and see the
swarming myriads, I say to
myself, 'Can it be that one man

swarming myriads, I say to
myself, 'Can it be that one man
is responsible for the welfare

myself, 'Can it be that one man
is responsible for the welfare
of these people?'"

is responsible for the welfare
of these people?'"
"The world is in

of these people?'"
"The world is in
chaos, struggling to master its

"The world is in
chaos, struggling to master its
own inventions.

Chaos, struggling to master its
own inventions.
We are in danger of being

own inventions.
We are in danger of being
annihilated by forces which we

We are in danger of being
annihilated by forces which we
ourselves set up.

Annihilated by forces which we
ourselves set up.
The world calls for an answer to

ourselves set up.
The world calls for an answer to
this problem of mastering our

The world calls for an answer to
this problem of mastering our
own inventions and we propose in

this problem of mastering our
own inventions and we propose in
1939 to contribute to that

own inventions and we propose in
1939 to contribute to that
answer."

1939 to contribute to that
answer."
Michael Hare, secretary of the

answer."
Michael Hare, secretary of the
World's Fair.

Michael Hare, secretary of the
World's Fair.
By the spring of

World's Fair.
By the spring of
1939, excitement was building

By the spring of
1939, excitement was building
all across New York.

1939, excitement was building
all across New York.
For nearly three years, an army

all across New York.
For nearly three years, an army
of men working under Robert

For nearly three years, an army
of men working under Robert
Moses had been laboring to

of men working under Robert
Moses had been laboring to
transform a 12,000-acre ash heap

Moses had been laboring to
transform a 12,000-acre ash heap
far out on the northern edge of

transform a 12,000-acre ash heap
far out on the northern edge of
Queens into the site of one of

far out on the northern edge of
Queens into the site of one of
the most breathlessly

Queens into the site of one of
the most breathlessly
anticipated collective

the most breathlessly
anticipated collective
enterprises of the decade.

Anticipated collective
enterprises of the decade.
A hymn to progress, forged in

enterprises of the decade.
A hymn to progress, forged in
the searing crucible of the

A hymn to progress, forged in
the searing crucible of the
Great Depression, the monumental

the searing crucible of the
Great Depression, the monumental
fair would, when complete,

Great Depression, the monumental
fair would, when complete,
project the image of a bold new

fair would, when complete,
project the image of a bold new
city of tomorrow that in 1939

project the image of a bold new
city of tomorrow that in 1939
seemed just around the corner.

City of tomorrow that in 1939
seemed just around the corner.
The 1939 World's

seemed just around the corner.
The 1939 World's
Fair was a special moment in

The 1939 World's
Fair was a special moment in
time.

On the one hand, it was the
culmination of almost everything

culmination of almost everything
that had transformed in New York

that had transformed in New York
in the century and a quarter

in the century and a quarter
since the opening of the Erie

since the opening of the Erie
Canal, the creation of this

Canal, the creation of this
incredible world metropolis.
It was a technological

It was a technological
breakthrough: the opportunities
for the future, the automobile,

breakthrough: the opportunities
for the future, the automobile,
and what will the future look

for the future, the automobile,
and what will the future look
like.

And what will the future look
like.
There was a wonderful General

like.
There was a wonderful General
Motors exhibit, for example, and

There was a wonderful General
Motors exhibit, for example, and
all these kind of gleaming

Motors exhibit, for example, and
all these kind of gleaming
aluminum buildings.

All these kind of gleaming
aluminum buildings.
Robert Moses, of course, was at

aluminum buildings.
Robert Moses, of course, was at
the center of this.

Robert Moses, of course, was at
the center of this.
It was a gigantic World's Fair...

The center of this.
It was a gigantic World's Fair...
bigger, I think, than any

It was a gigantic World's Fair...
bigger, I think, than any
World's Fair that had ever taken

bigger, I think, than any
World's Fair that had ever taken
place up until that point in

World's Fair that had ever taken
place up until that point in
terms of numbers of people

place up until that point in
terms of numbers of people
coming through the turnstiles...

Terms of numbers of people
coming through the turnstiles...
incredible event.

Coming through the turnstiles...
incredible event.
An exhilarating

incredible event.
An exhilarating
sense of wonder and a kind of

An exhilarating
sense of wonder and a kind of
serene ambivalence presided over

sense of wonder and a kind of
serene ambivalence presided over
the New York World's Fair, which

serene ambivalence presided over
the New York World's Fair, which
from the day it opened on April

the New York World's Fair, which
from the day it opened on April
30, 1939, touched a deep chord

from the day it opened on April
30, 1939, touched a deep chord
in the consciousness of the

30, 1939, touched a deep chord
in the consciousness of the
American people and proved to be

in the consciousness of the
American people and proved to be
an enormous success.

American people and proved to be
an enormous success.
Day after day, week after week,

an enormous success.
Day after day, week after week,
immense crowds streamed through

Day after day, week after week,
immense crowds streamed through
the sleek Art Deco gates and on

immense crowds streamed through
the sleek Art Deco gates and on
into the shimmering, dreamlike

the sleek Art Deco gates and on
into the shimmering, dreamlike
interior of the fair, drifting

into the shimmering, dreamlike
interior of the fair, drifting
through scores of international

interior of the fair, drifting
through scores of international
exhibits and dozens of corporate

through scores of international
exhibits and dozens of corporate
pavilions, bristling with

exhibits and dozens of corporate
pavilions, bristling with
consumer products and modern

pavilions, bristling with
consumer products and modern
devices of all kinds that

consumer products and modern
devices of all kinds that
promised a streamlined, chrome-

devices of all kinds that
promised a streamlined, chrome-
plated future where machines of

promised a streamlined, chrome-
plated future where machines of
all kinds delivered ordinary

plated future where machines of
all kinds delivered ordinary
people from the drudgery of

all kinds delivered ordinary
people from the drudgery of
housework and physical labor.

People from the drudgery of
housework and physical labor.
I think the fair

housework and physical labor.
I think the fair
itself has a sublime quality to

I think the fair
itself has a sublime quality to
it because it's the end of

itself has a sublime quality to
it because it's the end of
American innocence, not just New

it because it's the end of
American innocence, not just New
York innocence.

Somehow, it's the last time...
Maybe the '50s was an afterglow,

maybe the '50s was an afterglow,
but I think it's the last time

but I think it's the last time
we believed we could save the

we believed we could save the
republic with a dishwasher, that

republic with a dishwasher, that
vacuuming would somehow

vacuuming would somehow
transform all American life.
If we only had a dishwasher, if

If we only had a dishwasher, if
we only had a vacuum cleaner,
our family life would be happy;

we only had a vacuum cleaner,
our family life would be happy;
we would be healthy.

Our family life would be happy;
we would be healthy.
If we had a car... it's the last

we would be healthy.
If we had a car... it's the last
time we really believed that the

If we had a car... it's the last
time we really believed that the
car was liberating, because by

time we really believed that the
car was liberating, because by
the end of the Second World War,

car was liberating, because by
the end of the Second World War,
the car was nothing but a

the end of the Second World War,
the car was nothing but a
traffic nightmare.

The car was nothing but a
traffic nightmare.
Whereas, in the '30s you dreamed

traffic nightmare.
Whereas, in the '30s you dreamed
of having a car to be able to go

Whereas, in the '30s you dreamed
of having a car to be able to go
out on one of those Robert Moses

of having a car to be able to go
out on one of those Robert Moses
parkways out to Jones Beach or

out on one of those Robert Moses
parkways out to Jones Beach or
someplace like that.

Parkways out to Jones Beach or
someplace like that.
In the end, the

someplace like that.
In the end, the
futuristic city within a city

In the end, the
futuristic city within a city
that was the world's fair was

futuristic city within a city
that was the world's fair was
itself a celebration of the

that was the world's fair was
itself a celebration of the
great city shimmering on the

itself a celebration of the
great city shimmering on the
horizon, and yet in many ways an

great city shimmering on the
horizon, and yet in many ways an
eerie repudiation of everything

horizon, and yet in many ways an
eerie repudiation of everything
it stood for.

Eerie repudiation of everything
it stood for.
At the very center of the fair

it stood for.
At the very center of the fair
stood the ravishing, pure-white

At the very center of the fair
stood the ravishing, pure-white
Trylon and Perisphere, the last

stood the ravishing, pure-white
Trylon and Perisphere, the last
and most sublime of New York's

Trylon and Perisphere, the last
and most sublime of New York's
great Art Deco icons.

And most sublime of New York's
great Art Deco icons.
Every day huge crowds thronged

great Art Deco icons.
Every day huge crowds thronged
into the sphere to gaze in

Every day huge crowds thronged
into the sphere to gaze in
wonder at the immense diorama

into the sphere to gaze in
wonder at the immense diorama
that had been constructed

wonder at the immense diorama
that had been constructed
inside, called Democracity, a

that had been constructed
inside, called Democracity, a
radiant vision of the city of

inside, called Democracity, a
radiant vision of the city of
tomorrow, wiped clean of the

radiant vision of the city of
tomorrow, wiped clean of the
complexity, congestion, and

tomorrow, wiped clean of the
complexity, congestion, and
disorder of New York.

Complexity, congestion, and
disorder of New York.
But the largest crowds by far

disorder of New York.
But the largest crowds by far
gathered for the General Motors

But the largest crowds by far
gathered for the General Motors
exhibit, called Futurama, where,

gathered for the General Motors
exhibit, called Futurama, where,
once inside, visitors in moving

exhibit, called Futurama, where,
once inside, visitors in moving
chairs circled a 36,000-square-

once inside, visitors in moving
chairs circled a 36,000-square-
foot model showing the United

chairs circled a 36,000-square-
foot model showing the United
States as the designers

foot model showing the United
States as the designers
envisioned it 25 years hence in

States as the designers
envisioned it 25 years hence in
the year 1960.

Envisioned it 25 years hence in
the year 1960.
They would never forget what

the year 1960.
They would never forget what
they saw there.

They would never forget what
they saw there.
And what you see

they saw there.
And what you see
there... you sit in your little

And what you see
there... you sit in your little
cushion, two-seater sofas, and

there... you sit in your little
cushion, two-seater sofas, and
you roll along.

Cushion, two-seater sofas, and
you roll along.
It's an early, pre-Disney

you roll along.
It's an early, pre-Disney
enterprise and you go over a

It's an early, pre-Disney
enterprise and you go over a
scale map of the United States.

Enterprise and you go over a
scale map of the United States.
And what do you see?

Scale map of the United States.
And what do you see?
What is the vision of tomorrow?

And what do you see?
What is the vision of tomorrow?
The vision of tomorrow is

What is the vision of tomorrow?
The vision of tomorrow is
highways and huge central cities

The vision of tomorrow is
highways and huge central cities
with soaring skyscrapers and

highways and huge central cities
with soaring skyscrapers and
little small satellite cities

with soaring skyscrapers and
little small satellite cities
and such.

Little small satellite cities
and such.
General Motors is, in fact, as

and such.
General Motors is, in fact, as
the New York Times said, selling

General Motors is, in fact, as
the New York Times said, selling
us the world of tomorrow, and

the New York Times said, selling
us the world of tomorrow, and
the world of tomorrow means that

us the world of tomorrow, and
the world of tomorrow means that
the public has to foot the bill

the world of tomorrow means that
the public has to foot the bill
to develop the infrastructure

the public has to foot the bill
to develop the infrastructure
which will make, in fact, the

to develop the infrastructure
which will make, in fact, the
triumph of the automobile

which will make, in fact, the
triumph of the automobile
possible.

Triumph of the automobile
possible.
At the very center

possible.
At the very center
of the park, General Motors had

At the very center
of the park, General Motors had
a created an eerie blueprint for

of the park, General Motors had
a created an eerie blueprint for
New York's destruction and its

a created an eerie blueprint for
New York's destruction and its
replacement by a different kind

New York's destruction and its
replacement by a different kind
of world entirely.

Replacement by a different kind
of world entirely.
Gone were the crowded streets

of world entirely.
Gone were the crowded streets
and neighborhoods, and to a

Gone were the crowded streets
and neighborhoods, and to a
large extent the streets

and neighborhoods, and to a
large extent the streets
themselves.

Large extent the streets
themselves.
In their place, in an inner city

themselves.
In their place, in an inner city
eerily empty of human beings,

In their place, in an inner city
eerily empty of human beings,
rose tall towers widely

eerily empty of human beings,
rose tall towers widely
separated by broad swaths of

rose tall towers widely
separated by broad swaths of
green and bisected by highways

separated by broad swaths of
green and bisected by highways
14 lanes wide.

Green and bisected by highways
14 lanes wide.
Those highways carried people

14 lanes wide.
Those highways carried people
out of the city and into an

Those highways carried people
out of the city and into an
American landscape where people

out of the city and into an
American landscape where people
lived mostly in single-family

American landscape where people
lived mostly in single-family
houses accessible only by car...

Lived mostly in single-family
houses accessible only by car...
a landscape built not around the

houses accessible only by car...
a landscape built not around the
needs of people, but around the

a landscape built not around the
needs of people, but around the
needs of automobiles.

Needs of people, but around the
needs of automobiles.
"This is not a vague

needs of automobiles.
"This is not a vague
dream of a life that might be

"This is not a vague
dream of a life that might be
lived in the far future, but one

dream of a life that might be
lived in the far future, but one
that could be lived tomorrow

lived in the far future, but one
that could be lived tomorrow
morning if we willed it so.

That could be lived tomorrow
morning if we willed it so.
The relation between these units

morning if we willed it so.
The relation between these units
of stone and steel, highway and

The relation between these units
of stone and steel, highway and
green is a symbol of the new

of stone and steel, highway and
green is a symbol of the new
life of tomorrow.

Green is a symbol of the new
life of tomorrow.
That life will be based on a

life of tomorrow.
That life will be based on a
contribution of all elements to

That life will be based on a
contribution of all elements to
a new and living democracy."

contribution of all elements to
a new and living democracy."
Robert Korn.

A new and living democracy."
Robert Korn.
But then it took

Robert Korn.
But then it took
place against the backdrop of

But then it took
place against the backdrop of
the darkness that was coming

place against the backdrop of
the darkness that was coming
over the world.

The darkness that was coming
over the world.
1939, summer of 1939, though

over the world.
1939, summer of 1939, though
World War II had really not

1939, summer of 1939, though
World War II had really not
started, there was an ominous

World War II had really not
started, there was an ominous
feeling around the world.

Started, there was an ominous
feeling around the world.
Hitler... of course, his soldiers

feeling around the world.
Hitler... of course, his soldiers
were marching.

Hitler... of course, his soldiers
were marching.
Luftwaffe was regarded as this

were marching.
Luftwaffe was regarded as this
new threatening thing.

Luftwaffe was regarded as this
new threatening thing.
There was an unease about

new threatening thing.
There was an unease about
things.

There was an unease about
things.
And so I find what's fascinating

things.
And so I find what's fascinating
about that World's Fair is on

And so I find what's fascinating
about that World's Fair is on
the one hand all the promise of

about that World's Fair is on
the one hand all the promise of
the future, the celebration of

the one hand all the promise of
the future, the celebration of
the past, and how far we have

the future, the celebration of
the past, and how far we have
come.

The past, and how far we have
come.
We're coming out of the

come.
We're coming out of the
depression.

We're coming out of the
depression.
We're creating this new,

depression.
We're creating this new,
wonderful space.

We're creating this new,
wonderful space.
We're celebrating, in a sense,

wonderful space.
We're celebrating, in a sense,
the achievements of the world.

We're celebrating, in a sense,
the achievements of the world.
And meanwhile, there's this

the achievements of the world.
And meanwhile, there's this
cloud that we can see in

And meanwhile, there's this
cloud that we can see in
retrospect, but they can see and

cloud that we can see in
retrospect, but they can see and
feel almost themselves at the

retrospect, but they can see and
feel almost themselves at the
time, which makes that just such

feel almost themselves at the
time, which makes that just such
a poignant moment in time.

Time, which makes that just such
a poignant moment in time.
More than 30

a poignant moment in time.
More than 30
million people passed through

More than 30
million people passed through
the gates of the New York

million people passed through
the gates of the New York
World's Fair in the last perfect

the gates of the New York
World's Fair in the last perfect
summer of 1939.

World's Fair in the last perfect
summer of 1939.
Before the first season of the

summer of 1939.
Before the first season of the
fair was out, however, ominous

Before the first season of the
fair was out, however, ominous
news came from abroad.

Fair was out, however, ominous
news came from abroad.
On September 1, 1939, word

news came from abroad.
On September 1, 1939, word
reached New York that Hitler had

On September 1, 1939, word
reached New York that Hitler had
invaded Poland.

Reached New York that Hitler had
invaded Poland.
Within days, England and France

invaded Poland.
Within days, England and France
had declared war on Germany and

Within days, England and France
had declared war on Germany and
the battle for Europe had begun.

Had declared war on Germany and
the battle for Europe had begun.
The fair itself would lumber

the battle for Europe had begun.
The fair itself would lumber
along uncertainly for a few more

The fair itself would lumber
along uncertainly for a few more
months before closing in the

along uncertainly for a few more
months before closing in the
fall of 1940 with barely enough

months before closing in the
fall of 1940 with barely enough
money left over to demolish the

fall of 1940 with barely enough
money left over to demolish the
exhibits and clear the land.

Money left over to demolish the
exhibits and clear the land.
In the end, the 4,000 tons of

exhibits and clear the land.
In the end, the 4,000 tons of
structural steel that had gone

In the end, the 4,000 tons of
structural steel that had gone
into the Trylon and Perisphere

structural steel that had gone
into the Trylon and Perisphere
would be donated to the United

into the Trylon and Perisphere
would be donated to the United
States military and used to make

would be donated to the United
States military and used to make
instruments of war.

States military and used to make
instruments of war.
America itself was still at

instruments of war.
America itself was still at
peace, but it was hard "to block

America itself was still at
peace, but it was hard "to block
out thought," one man said, "of

peace, but it was hard "to block
out thought," one man said, "of
what might really be in store

out thought," one man said, "of
what might really be in store
for the world of tomorrow."

what might really be in store
for the world of tomorrow."
For 18 more months, the United

for the world of tomorrow."
For 18 more months, the United
States stayed out of the

For 18 more months, the United
States stayed out of the
fighting, but the storm clouds

States stayed out of the
fighting, but the storm clouds
were drawing near.

Fighting, but the storm clouds
were drawing near.
In New York, Robert Moses and

were drawing near.
In New York, Robert Moses and
Fiorello La Guardia raced to

In New York, Robert Moses and
Fiorello La Guardia raced to
complete as many public-works

Fiorello La Guardia raced to
complete as many public-works
projects as they could before

complete as many public-works
projects as they could before
federal resources were diverted

projects as they could before
federal resources were diverted
to the war effort.

Federal resources were diverted
to the war effort.
Then, in the dwindling days of

to the war effort.
Then, in the dwindling days of
1941, Japan attacked Pearl

Then, in the dwindling days of
1941, Japan attacked Pearl
Harbor and the city and country

1941, Japan attacked Pearl
Harbor and the city and country
mobilized for war.

Harbor and the city and country
mobilized for war.
With civilian needs indefinitely

mobilized for war.
With civilian needs indefinitely
deferred, the New York Housing

With civilian needs indefinitely
deferred, the New York Housing
Authority's blueprints were

deferred, the New York Housing
Authority's blueprints were
rolled up and stored away.

Authority's blueprints were
rolled up and stored away.
The unfinished steel and

rolled up and stored away.
The unfinished steel and
concrete tubes of the Brooklyn-

The unfinished steel and
concrete tubes of the Brooklyn-
Battery Tunnel would sit empty

concrete tubes of the Brooklyn-
Battery Tunnel would sit empty
beneath the harbor, sealed and

Battery Tunnel would sit empty
beneath the harbor, sealed and
forgotten, for the duration of

beneath the harbor, sealed and
forgotten, for the duration of
the war.

Forgotten, for the duration of
the war.
In the strange, eventful, and

the war.
In the strange, eventful, and
eerily suspended years to come,

In the strange, eventful, and
eerily suspended years to come,
time itself often seemed to

eerily suspended years to come,
time itself often seemed to
stand still in New York, while

time itself often seemed to
stand still in New York, while
beneath it the forces of change

stand still in New York, while
beneath it the forces of change
ran faster than ever before.

Beneath it the forces of change
ran faster than ever before.
Visit New York Online.

Ran faster than ever before.
Visit New York Online.
Jump into a taxi and play a

Visit New York Online.
Jump into a taxi and play a
quiz game.

Jump into a taxi and play a
quiz game.
Visit a virtual New York.

Quiz game.
Visit a virtual New York.
And for teachers and parents,

Visit a virtual New York.
And for teachers and parents,
take your kids on a learning

And for teachers and parents,
take your kids on a learning
adventure through your town.

America Online keyword: PBS.
[Captioned by
The Caption Center