Through the Wormhole (2010–2017): Season 5, Episode 1 - Is God an Alien Concept? - full transcript

TICED RELIGION

SINCE THEY FIRST WALKED
THE PLANET.

BUT IS GOD BEING WORSHIPED

IN THE OTHER WORLDS
ACROSS THE COSMOS?

THE ANSWERS MIGHT BE BURIED
HERE ON EARTH...

[ ELEPHANT TRUMPETS ]

...IN ANIMALS
THAT MOURN THEIR DEAD,

IN ROBOTS WHO LEARN
TO EXPERIENCE SPIRITUALITY,

AND IN AN EQUATION SO POWERFUL,

IT COULD ONE DAY KILL
THE IDEA OF GOD.

IS EARTH THE UNIVERSE'S
ONLY HOME FOR RELIGION...



...OR IS GOD AN ALIEN CONCEPT?

SPACE, TIME, LIFE ITSELF.

THE SECRETS OF THE COSMOS
LIE THROUGH THE WORMHOLE.

CAPTIONS PAID FOR BY
DISCOVERY COMMUNICATIONS

FOR THOUSANDS OF YEARS,

HUMANS HAVE GAZED UP
AT THE HEAVENS

AND CONTEMPLATED THE DIVINE.

BUT TODAY, WE ALSO WONDER

WHAT OTHER FORMS OF LIFE
MIGHT BE OUT THERE.

IT'S POSSIBLE THAT
SOME OF THOSE POINTS OF LIGHT

ARE HOME
TO ADVANCED CIVILIZATIONS.

WHAT DO THE ALIENS THINK WHEN
THEY LOOK UP AT THEIR SKIES?

PERHAPS THEY PRAY
TO A HIGHER POWER LIKE WE DO.

IS THE CONCEPT OF GOD
TRULY UNIVERSAL?



[ BIRDS CHIRPING ]

GROWING UP, I WAS TOLD

THE BIBLE COULD HELP ANSWER
QUESTIONS THAT BAFFLED MY MIND,

QUESTIONS LIKE, "WHY AM I HERE?"

IT MADE ME WONDER IF I WAS THE
ONLY ONE PONDERING THESE THINGS.

WHAT IF THERE ARE ALIENS
SOMEWHERE IN THE UNIVERSE?

ARE THEY LOOKING TO GOD
FOR ANSWERS, TOO?

ARE ALL CREATURES BORN ASKING
THE SAME BURNING QUESTION?

WHY?

WHY?

WHY?

Freeman: DEB KELEMEN IS
A RENOWNED CHILD PSYCHOLOGIST

AT BOSTON UNIVERSITY'S
CHILD COGNITION LAB.

SHE DEALS WITH CLIENTS
WHO DEMAND ANSWERS.

AROUND 3 OR 4 YEARS OF AGE,
AS ANY PARENT WILL TELL YOU,

YOUR KID STARTS TO ASK YOU
LOTS OF "WHY?" QUESTIONS.

WHY DO WE HAVE EARS?

WHY DOES A PIG ROLL IN MUD?

IT SEEMS CONSTANT,
THE "WHY, WHY, WHY, WHY, WHY?"

WHY DO NUMBERS NEVER STOP?

SOME OF THAT'S JUST TO KIND OF
GET A CONVERSATION STARTED,

BUT A LOT OF IT
IS BECAUSE CHILDREN

HAVE THESE REALLY STRONG
EXPLANATORY URGES.

WE'VE BEEN INTERESTED IN
THE KINDS OF EXPLANATIONS

CHILDREN SEEM TO NATURALLY
GENERATE FOR THEMSELVES

AND WHICH KINDS OF EXPLANATIONS
THEY FIND PALATABLE.

Freeman: MOST RELIGIOUS TEXTS,
INCLUDING THE BIBLE,

TEACH THAT A DIVINE MIND

CREATED EVERYTHING AROUND US
FOR A PURPOSE.

DEB DESIGNED A STUDY
TO SEE IF OUR BRAINS

INNATELY THINK OF THE WORLD
IN THAT WAY.

HEY, GABRIELLE.
YOU READY?

ALL RIGHT.

ALL AROUND THE COUNTRY,

THERE WERE
THESE POINTY KINDS OF ROCKS,

ROCKS WITH POINTS
ON THE TOP.

WHY DO YOU THINK
THE ROCKS WERE SO POINTY?

ONE PERSON THOUGHT
THEY WERE POINTY

BECAUSE LITTLE BITS OF STUFF
PILED UP ON TOP OF ONE ANOTHER

OVER A VERY LONG TIME.

ANOTHER PERSON THOUGHT
THEY WERE POINTY

SO ANIMALS COULD SCRATCH ON THEM
WHEN THEY GOT ITCHY.

WHICH ANSWER
MAKES MORE SENSE TO YOU?

THE ONE
WITH THE SCRATCH.

OKAY.
SO THEY COULD SCR--

ANIMALS.
OKAY.

GABRIELLE PREFERS TO BELIEVE

THAT POINTY ROCKS
WERE CREATED FOR A PURPOSE --

TO SCRATCH THOSE
HARD-TO-REACH PLACES ON ANIMALS.

DEB POSES QUESTIONS LIKE THIS
TO KIDS OF ALL AGES,

AND MOST OF THEM FAVOR
THE SAME PURPOSE-BASED ANSWERS.

THERE WERE THESE PONDS
THAT NEVER HAD ANY WAVES.

ONE PERSON THOUGHT
THEY WERE STILL

SO THAT ANIMALS
COULD COOL OFF IN THE THEM

WITHOUT GETTING WASHED AWAY.

ANOTHER PERSON THOUGHT
THEY WERE STILL

BECAUSE NO MOVING WATER
EVER RAN INTO THEM.

WHICH ANSWER?
SO THEY COULD BE COOL.

SO THEY COULD BE COOL.
OKAY.

Kelemen: ON BALANCE WHAT WE
FOUND FROM ABOUT 4 YEARS OF AGE

AND IT GETS STRONGER
BY ABOUT 7 OR 8 YEARS OF AGE

IS THAT CHILDREN PREFER
PURPOSE-BASED EXPLANATIONS

FOR ALL KINDS
OF NATURAL PHENOMENA.

WHAT THEY ARE SEEMING
TO SHOW SIGNS OF IS SOMETHING

THAT WE SEE RECURRENTLY ACROSS
THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD,

IS THIS KIND -- THIS IDEA
THAT THERE IS SOME PURPOSE,

THAT THINGS EXIST
FOR A PURPOSE POTENTIALLY

BECAUSE OF SOME INTENTIONAL
AGENT'S PURPOSE.

Freeman: ONCE WE ARE TAUGHT
HOW NATURE WORKS,

WE LEARN THAT ROCKS ARE NOT
CONCERNED WITH ITCHY ANIMALS.

RATHER, THEY GO THROUGH
GEOLOGICAL CYCLES

AND BECOME POINTY.

OUR PURPOSE-BASED EXPLANATIONS
SEEM TO GO AWAY.

BUT IS THERE A PART OF OUR BRAIN
THAT STILL BELIEVES THEM?

TO FIND OUT, DEB DESIGNED
A POINTY-ROCK TEST FOR ADULTS.

IN SOME CASES, VERY HIGHLY
SCIENTIFICALLY EDUCATED ADULTS

WHO HAVE A VERY STRONG BIAS

AGAINST PURPOSE-BASED
EXPLANATIONS

OF NATURAL PHENOMENA,

AND WHAT WE DID
WAS TO ASK THEM TO LOOK AT

A SERIES
OF PURPOSE-BASED EXPLANATIONS

UNDER CONDITIONS OF SPEED,

SO THEY HAD TO RESPOND
VERY QUICKLY

BASED ON THEIR GUT REACTIONS.

Freeman: DEB HAS FOUND THAT MOST
ADULTS, WHEN PRESSED FOR TIME,

TEND TO PREFER
PURPOSE-BASED EXPLANATIONS.

Kelemen:
ONE THING THAT WE'RE REALLY
PHENOMENAL AT AS HUMAN BEINGS

IS REASONING ABOUT PURPOSES
AND THINKING ABOUT

INTENTIONALLY DESIGNED
OR INTENTIONALLY CAUSED THINGS

COMES VERY EASILY TO US.

AND SO THE KINDS OF EXPLANATIONS
THAT YOU SEE IN RELIGIONS

TAP VERY MUCH INTO VERY CORE
ASPECTS OF HUMAN INTELLIGENCE.

[ DOG BARKING ]

Freeman: MANY ADULTS CONSCIOUSLY
REJECT CREATIONIST EXPLANATIONS,

BUT AT OUR CORE,
WE APPEAR PRONE TO BELIEVE

ALL THINGS
WERE CREATED FOR A REASON.

IF THERE ARE INTELLIGENT ALIENS
OUT THERE,

WOULD THEY HAVE
THE SAME INSTINCTS THAT WE DO?

WOULD THEY SEE DIVINE FORCES
AT WORK WHEREVER THEY LOOK?

Kelemen: IF THEY HAVE
SOMETHING THAT'S EQUIVALENT

TO A HUMAN EVOLUTIONARY PATHWAY

BUT ALSO SOMETHING SIMILAR
TO A HUMAN CULTURAL CONTEXT,

THAT THEY WOULD BE GENERATING
PURPOSE-BASED EXPLANATIONS

AND POTENTIALLY
EVEN RELIGIOUS EXPLANATIONS.

Freeman:
DO ALIENS BELIEVE IN GOD?

WE MIGHT BE MORE INCLINED
TO THINK SO

IF WE KNEW
THAT OTHER ANIMALS ON EARTH

SHARED OUR INNATE NEED
TO BELIEVE.

[ BIRDS CHIRPING ]

JOSHUA PLOTNIK
IS A COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGIST

IN NORTHERN THAILAND.

HE HAS COME
TO THIS REMOTE JUNGLE

TO LEARN ABOUT THE BRAINS
OF A NON-HUMAN SPECIES.

[ ELEPHANT TRUMPETS ]

Plotnik: I'VE SET UP
A RESEARCH CENTER HERE

WHERE WE'RE ABLE TO STUDY
ELEPHANT INTELLIGENCE

USING THE 26 ELEPHANTS
THAT ARE BASED HERE.

Freeman:
JOSHUA'S RESEARCH GROUP,

THINK ELEPHANTS INTERNATIONAL,
IS A PROVING GROUND

FOR THE FINER POINTS
OF ELEPHANT PSYCHOLOGY.

Plotnik: I WOULD SAY
THAT THEY ARE CERTAINLY

ONE OF THE MOST INTELLIGENT
SPECIES IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

THE MORE WE LEARN
ABOUT ELEPHANT COGNITION,

THE MORE WE LEARN ABOUT
THE EVOLUTION

OF BEHAVIOR AND INTELLIGENCE
IN GENERAL.

Freeman: JOSHUA WANTS TO FIND
OUT IF THERE ARE PARALLELS

BETWEEN ELEPHANT INTELLIGENCE
AND OUR INTELLIGENCE.

OH, OKAY.

HE'S INTERESTED IN A BEHAVIOR
THAT WE HUMANS DO EVERY DAY --

TAKE A LOOK AT OURSELVES
IN A MIRROR.

Plotnik: HUMANS TAKE THIS
FOR GRANTED, RIGHT?

WE WAKE UP IN THE MORNING,
WE BRUSH OUR TEETH,

WE GROOM OURSELVES,

BUT WE DON'T REALLY
THINK ABOUT THE FACT

THAT ACTUALLY THAT ABILITY TO
RECOGNIZE YOURSELF IN THE MIRROR

MAY BE A COMPLEX
COGNITIVE CAPACITY

THAT WE CALL SELF-AWARENESS.

Freeman:
IS SELF-AWARENESS SOMETHING
ONLY HUMANS ARE CAPABLE OF,

OR DO ELEPHANTS ALSO HAVE
THIS SOPHISTICATED ABILITY?

COME ON.

TO FIND OUT,
JOSHUA HAS SET UP AN EXPERIMENT

THAT REQUIRES
ONE MAMMOTH MIRROR.

Plotnik: THIS IS SUM JI.
HE'S ONE OF OUR MALES.

HE'S 20 YEARS OLD, AND THIS IS
ACTUALLY HIS VERY FIRST DAY

LOOKING AT HIMSELF
IN FRONT OF THE MIRROR.

WHEN AN ANIMAL IS FIRST
PRESENTED TO THE MIRROR,

THEY INITIALLY, USUALLY,
THINK IT'S ANOTHER ANIMAL.

SO THEY MIGHT REACH OUT
AND TOUCH THE MIRROR.

THEY MIGHT TRY AND GET BEHIND
IT, ABOVE IT, UNDERNEATH IT.

Freeman:
MANY CREATURES ON EARTH

COMPLETELY IGNORE
THEIR REFLECTIONS.

OTHERS FOREVER THINK
IT'S ANOTHER ANIMAL

STARING BACK AT THEM.

BUT SUM JI MOVES ON TO
DO SOMETHING QUITE REMARKABLE.

Plotnik: AND THE ELEPHANT
STARTS TO DO THINGS

THAT WE AS HUMANS WOULD DO
IN FRONT OF THE MIRROR.

THEY MIGHT LIFT UP THEIR FEET.

THEY MIGHT LOOK
INSIDE THEIR MOUTHS.

THEY MIGHT PUT THEIR TRUNKS
INSIDE THEIR MOUTHS.

AGAIN, USING THE MIRROR
TO INSPECT THEMSELVES.

Freeman:
SEVERAL OF THE ELEPHANTS JOSHUA
TEST REACT JUST LIKE SUM JI.

THEY USE THE MIRROR
TO STUDY THEMSELVES

AND LOOK AT PARTS OF THEIR
BODIES THEY CAN'T OTHERWISE SEE.

IT'S A BEHAVIOR THAT SUGGESTS
THEY ARE SELF-AWARE.

THEY SEE THEMSELVES AS SEPARATE
FROM OTHER ELEPHANTS.

TO JOSHUA, THIS IS A SIGN

THEY HAVE AN ABILITY CALLED
THEORY OF MIND.

IT IS A TERM PSYCHOLOGISTS USE
TO EXPLAIN THE CAPACITY

TO SEE THE WORLD FROM
SOMEONE ELSE'S POINT OF VIEW.

[ ELEPHANT TRUMPETS ]

THEY BELIEVE
IT IS A BASIC INGREDIENT

FOR RELIGIOUS BEHAVIOR,

BECAUSE IN ORDER TO IMAGINE
THE MIND OF GOD,

YOU MUST HAVE A THEORY OF MIND.

COULD ELEPHANTS
HAVE THIS MENTAL TOOL

THAT UNDERPINS SPIRITUALITY?

JOSHUA THOUGHT
OF A WAY TO FIND OUT.

IT'S A TEST TO SEE IF ELEPHANTS

CAN THINK ABOUT THE MINDS
OF OTHER ELEPHANTS.

THIS GREEN TABLE IS HOLDING TWO
BOWLS OF TASTY ELEPHANT SNACKS.

A SINGLE ROPE IS THREAD
THROUGH AND AROUND THE TABLE,

THE IDEA BEING THAT IT'S
KIND OF LIKE A PULLEY SYSTEM,

SO IF ONE END IS PICKED UP
BY ONE ELEPHANT AND PULLED,

THE OTHER END BECOMES
UNTHREADED FROM THE TABLE

AND THE TABLE DOESN'T MOVE.

Freeman: THE ELEPHANT HAS
TO LEARN TO WAIT FOR HIS PARTNER

BEFORE HE PULLS THE ROPE.

ONCE HIS PARTNER ARRIVES,

THEY BOTH KNOW
TO COORDINATE THEIR PULLING

TO GET THE FOOD TOGETHER.

THEY HAVE TO HAVE
SOME BASIC UNDERSTANDING

THAT IF THE PARTNER IS NOT THERE

AND THE PARTNER IS NOT PULLING,
THE TABLE DOESN'T WORK.

Freeman:
JOSHUA'S EXPERIMENT SUGGESTS
THAT ELEPHANTS CAN THINK ABOUT

WHAT OTHER ELEPHANTS
ARE THINKING.

THEY MAY HAVE AT LEAST THE BASIC
MENTAL EQUIPMENT FOR RELIGION.

THIS COULD EXPLAIN
A PROFOUND BEHAVIOR

THAT HAS BEEN OBSERVED
IN THE WILD.

Plotnik:
THERE ARE ANECDOTES OF ELEPHANTS
RETURNING TO THE LOCATION

WHERE FAMILY MEMBERS HAVE DIED

AND POTENTIALLY REFLECTING
ON THAT.

IT'S DIFFICULT
TO INTERPRET THAT,

BUT, AGAIN,
BECAUSE OF HOW SOCIAL THEY ARE,

I CERTAINLY THINK THAT THEY HAVE
SOME UNDERSTANDING OF LOSS.

[ ELEPHANT GRUNTS ]

Freeman:
ELEPHANTS AREN'T THE ONLY
NON-HUMAN ANIMALS TO SHOW GRIEF.

THIS BOTTLE-NOSED DOLPHIN

WAS SPOTTED LIFTING THE BODY
OF HER DEAD NEWBORN CALF.

SHE CARRIED THE BABY ON HER BACK
FOR SEVERAL DAYS.

ELEPHANTS AND DOLPHINS
APPEAR TO FEEL COMPLEX EMOTIONS

AND MAY EVEN BE SPIRITUAL.

IF CREATURES
FROM OTHER PLANETS EXIST,

THEIR BIOLOGY MAY HAVE HARDWIRED
THEM THE SAME WAY.

INTELLIGENT SPECIES COULD HAVE
A UNIVERSAL CAPACITY FOR GOD.

BUT IN ORDER
FOR ADVANCED CIVILIZATIONS,

LIKE HUMANS AND ALIENS,
TO THRIVE,

IS THERE A UNIVERSAL REQUIREMENT
FOR GOD?

MORE THAN 90% OF US ADHERE
TO ONE FAITH OR ANOTHER.

WHY IS GOD SO PERVASIVE?

BELIEVERS WOULD SAY IT'S BECAUSE
THE HOLY SPIRIT IS EVERYWHERE.

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGISTS
OFFER ANOTHER REASON.

CIVILIZATION, HERE OR ANYWHERE
IN THE UNIVERSE,

WOULD DIE WITHOUT BELIEF
IN THE DIVINE.

PSYCHOLOGIST KEVIN ROUNDING FROM
QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY IN CANADA

IS TRYING TO FIND OUT WHY
INTELLIGENT CREATURES LIKE US

HAVE EVOLVED TO BE SO HUNGRY
FOR RELIGION.

Rounding: THERE'S
SEVERAL DIFFERENT THEORIES

OF WHERE RELIGION EMERGED FROM.

THERE'S SOME PEOPLE THAT THINK

THAT WE WERE TRYING TO
MAKE SENSE

OF THESE RANDOM,
UNCERTAIN EVENTS THAT WE HAVE,

SO, LIKE, VOLCANOES,
EARTHQUAKES, THAT SORT OF THING.

SO WE CREATE RELIGION
TO TRY TO EXPLAIN THESE EVENTS.

BUT FROM
AN EVOLUTIONARY STANDPOINT,

THIS SEEMS PRETTY COSTLY.

IF WE HAVE TO SPEND TIME
PERFORMING RELIGIOUS RITES

OR RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES, THIS IS
TIME THAT I'M NOT OUT HUNTING,

I'M NOT OUT GATHERING.

AND SO, RELIGION
IS A BIG EVOLUTIONARY MYSTERY.

Freeman:
KEVIN BELIEVES THERE MUST BE
A BETTER REASON FOR RELIGION,

AND AN IDEA CAME TO HIM
DURING A MOMENT OF WEAKNESS.

Rounding:
HE'S HAVING A CHEESEBURGER.

THAT'S WHAT I'D LIKE
TO BE HAVING.

I'D PROBABLY EAT A CHEESEBURGER
EVERY DAY IF I COULD.

BUT I COME AND I ORDER A SALAD

BECAUSE I'M TRYING TO EXERT
A LITTLE BIT OF SELF-CONTROL.

Freeman:
ACCORDING TO KEVIN,

SELF-CONTROL SPRINGS
FROM A LIMITED SOURCE.

THE MORE WE USE UP,
THE LESS WE HAVE LEFT.

SO, IF KEVIN PASSES BY
AN ICE-CREAM SHOP

AFTER ORDERING A SALAD, HE
MAY NOT HAVE THE FUEL TO RESIST.

A CIVILIZATION MADE OF PEOPLE

WITH NO WILLPOWER
COULDN'T SURVIVE.

HOW DO WE MAXIMIZE
OUR SELF-CONTROL?

KEVIN SUSPECTS
THERE IS ONE POWERFUL WAY.

GOD.

HE HAS SET UP AN EXPERIMENT
AT HIS PSYCHOLOGY LAB

WHERE PEOPLE FIND OUT

HOW MUCH
THEY CAN CONTROL THEMSELVES.

BUT BEFORE THEY DO,

KEVIN HAS THEM COMPLETE
A BRIEF WARM-UP TASK.

YOU'RE GONNA SEE SOME SENTENCES
THAT HAVE FIVE WORDS IN IT.

YOU NEED TO DROP
THE FIFTH WORD

AND UNSCRAMBLE
THE OTHER WORDS

TO MAKE
A COHERENT SENTENCE.

KEVIN IS USING
THIS JUMBLED-WORD TASK

TO DIVIDE THE GROUP INTO TWO.

HALF OF THEM
UNSCRAMBLE SENTENCES

WITH NEUTRAL WORDS,
LIKE, "HE SAW THE TRAIN."

BUT THE OTHER HALF
UNSCRAMBLE SENTENCES

THAT HAVE HIDDEN
RELIGIOUS REMINDERS.

Rounding: THERE'S WORDS LIKE,
"GOD," "SPIRIT," "BIBLE."

AND FOR EXAMPLE, ONE OF THEM
IS "THE DESSERT WAS DIVINE."

AND THIS REMINDS PEOPLE
OF RELIGION,

BUT IT DOES SO
IN A VERY SUBTLE WAY.

IT'S MORE JUST
IN THE BACK OF THEIR MINDS.

Freeman: WHEN THE STUDENTS
ARE DONE WITH THE WARM-UP,

KEVIN GIVES THEM THE TEST
THEY THOUGHT THEY CAME FOR.

THEY MUST DEMONSTRATE
THEIR SELF-CONTROL

BY CONSUMING ONE OF
THE MOST DISGUSTING COCKTAILS

EVER CREATED --
ORANGE JUICE AND VINEGAR.

AND, PLEASE,
DON'T TRY THIS AT HOME.

MM.
[ COUGHS ]

Rounding: MOST PARTICIPANTS,
WHEN THEY TAKE THE SHOT,

THEY FEEL LIKE THROWING UP.

IT BURNS KIND OF GOING DOWN.

IT'S PRETTY DISGUSTING.

[ COUGHS ]

Freeman: KEVIN IS TESTING TO SEE
IF THE PARTICIPANTS

WHO HAVE RELIGION
IN THE BACK OF THEIR MINDS

HAVE MORE SELF-CONTROL
TO COMPLETE THE REVOLTING TASK

THAN THE ONES WHO DO NOT.

THAT'S --

WILL A SPOONFUL OF GOD
MAKE THE MEDICINE GO DOWN?

Rounding: WE HAVE FOUND
THAT THESE CONCEPTS

THAT ARE RELATED TO GOD

HAS ACTUALLY A BIG EFFECT
ON THEIR BEHAVIOR.

[ BURPS ]

THOSE WHO ARE GIVEN
RELIGIOUS REMINDERS,

THEY'RE ABLE TO DRINK

ABOUT TWICE AS MANY
OF THESE ONE-OUNCE SHOTS.

Freeman: KEVIN HAS DONE
THIS STUDY ON HUNDREDS OF PEOPLE

AND FOUND THAT THOSE WHO WERE
EXPOSED TO REMINDERS OF GOD

WERE WILLING TO TAKE
SHOT AFTER SHOT,

WHILE THE REST QUICKLY GAVE UP.

SELF-CONTROL IS CRUCIAL
TO ANY SOCIETY.

IT'S WHAT HELPS US
GET ALONG WITH STRANGERS,

SACRIFICE FOR OTHERS,

AND BEHAVE MORALLY.

THE CONCEPT OF GOD
GIVES US WILLPOWER,

AND THAT ALLOWS US TO GET ALONG
IN COMPLEX SOCIETY.

Rounding: IF WE DON'T HAVE
THAT SELF-CONTROL,

WE'RE LIKELY
TO LASH OUT AT PEOPLE.

WE'RE LIKELY TO ACT IN
PROBABLY MORE ANTISOCIAL WAYS

THAN IF WE DID HAVE
MORE SELF-CONTROL.

Freeman: HUMANS HAVE NEEDED
RELIGION TO KEEP

THE BENEFITS OF COOPERATIVE
SOCIETY DRIVING US FORWARD.

IF OTHER BEINGS
FROM MAYBE OTHER WORLDS

HAVE THE SAME SORT OF PROBLEMS

THAT WE HAD
FROM OUR CULTURAL HISTORY,

THEN MAYBE THEY DO NEED
SOME SORT OF RELIGION

TO HELP PROMOTE
PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOR.

[ CHEERING ]

Freeman: IT HAS TAKEN
TENS OF THOUSANDS OF YEARS

FOR US TO EVOLVE
FROM A HUNTER-GATHERER SOCIETY

TO AN ADVANCED
TECHNOLOGICAL CIVILIZATION.

ANY ALIENS WE MEET WILL PROBABLY
HAVE BEEN AROUND EVEN LONGER.

THEY MAY HAVE EVOLVED BEYOND US

AND OUR PRIMITIVE NEED
FOR SELF-CONTROL.

WILL ADVANCED ALIENS
STILL NEED GOD?

EEMING WITH CREATURES
AND OUR PRIMITIVE NEED
FOR SELF-CONTROL.

THAT ARE NOW GONE --

THE AMERICAN MASTODON,
THE WOOLLY MAMMOTH,

THE SABER-TOOTH CAT.

CHANGING CONDITIONS
AND OVER-HUNTING

HAVE DRIVEN THESE
MAJESTIC ANIMALS TO EXTINCTION.

ALL WE HAVE LEFT ARE FOSSILS.

SOME SCIENTISTS BELIEVE

THAT RELIGION FACES
THE SAME EVOLUTIONARY BATTLE.

IF ALIENS ARE FARTHER ALONG

ON THEIR EVOLUTIONARY TIMELINE
THAN WE ARE,

WHAT HAS HAPPENED
TO THEIR RELIGION?

COULD THEIR GOD
HAVE GONE EXTINCT?

[ TICKING ]

DANNY ABRAMS
IS AN APPLIED MATHEMATICIAN

AT NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY.

HIS JOB IS TO MAKE PREDICTIONS

ABOUT ALMOST ANYTHING
IN THE WORLD.

SO, THIS IS A SETUP
OF 20 METRONOMES.

THEY'RE ALL ON TOP OF A BOARD

THAT CAN ROLL A LITTLE BIT
SIDE TO SIDE.

AND ONCE I START
THESE METRONOMES GOING,

WE'RE GOING TO SEE

THAT THEY'RE ALL GOING TO BE
TICKING INDEPENDENTLY

AND IT'S GONNA SOUND
LIKE THIS CACOPHONY.

Freeman: THE METRONOMES START
OFF COMPLETELY OUT OF SYNC.

BUT THE MOTION OF THE WHEELS
UNDERNEATH THE BOARD

CONNECTS THEM ALL TOGETHER,

SO THE TICKING OF ONE
AFFECTS THE REST.

USING MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
CALLED NONLINEAR EQUATIONS,

DANNY CAN PREDICT
THAT WITHIN A FEW SECONDS

AFTER THE BOARD STARTS TO MOVE,

THE METRONOMES WILL UNDERGO
AN IRREVERSIBLE CHANGE.

THERE WE GO.

SO NOW THEY'RE
ALL TICKING IN UNISON.

WE HAVE A STATE
OF COMPLETE SYNCHRONIZATION

AMONG THESE 20 METRONOMES.

Freeman:
THE WHEELS UNDERNEATH THE BOARD

ARE CHANGING THE RHYTHM
OF THE METRONOMES.

AS MORE OF THEM SYNC UP,
THE OTHERS ARE FORCED TO JOIN.

THERE'S NO GOING BACK.

SCIENTISTS CALL
THIS CRITICAL POINT OF NO RETURN

A TIPPING POINT.

Abrams: ON THIS GRAPH, YOU CAN
SEE THE TIPPING POINT VISUALLY.

THE TIPPING POINT
IS REALLY THE THRESHOLD

THAT WHEN YOU MOVE ABOVE IT,
YOU END UP AT 100%.

WHEN YOU'RE BELOW IT,
YOU END UP AT 0%.

Freeman:
THE DASHED LINE REPRESENTS

WHERE THE METRONOMES
STARTED TO SYNC UP.

EVENTUALLY, A MAJORITY EMERGED,
FORCING MORE TO FALL IN LINE

UNTIL THE GROUP BECAME
100% SYNCHRONIZED.

IN HUMAN SOCIETY,
CHANGES IN PEOPLE'S BEHAVIORS

CAN ALSO REACH A TIPPING POINT.

DANNY'S MATHEMATICAL MODELS
CAN PREDICT THESE

BY GRAPHING PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR
OVER TIME.

HI. HOW ARE YOU?
WELCOME TO MUSTARD'S.

[ SPEAKING QUECHUA ]

WANT HOT DOGS?
WE GOT HOT DOGS.

DANNY IS TRYING UNSUCCESSFULLY
TO COMMUNICATE IN QUECHUA,

WHICH IS THE LANGUAGE
OF THE ANCIENT INCAN EMPIRE.

IT IS NOW ONE OF

THE MOST ENDANGERED LANGUAGES
IN THE WORLD.

[ SPEAKING QUECHUA ]

NO, NO, WE DON'T SPEAK
THAT LANGUAGE.

AH.

THEN COULD I GET
A WISCONSIN SAUSAGE, PLEASE?

YOU GOT IT.

DANNY'S RESEARCH HAS SHOWN

THAT LANGUAGES
REACH A TIPPING POINT

WHEN THERE WAS A CHANGE
IN STATUS.

THE SPANISH CONQUERED THE INCAS,
AND SO DID THEIR LANGUAGE.

SPEAKING SPANISH
HAS BECOME ESSENTIAL

TO ACCESS FOOD, HOUSING,
AND MONEY.

ONCE THAT TIPPING POINT HAPPENS,
A MAJORITY EMERGES,

AND THE MINORITY LANGUAGE
GRADUALLY DISAPPEARS.

SO, THIS IS AN EXAMPLE
OF THE MAJORITY.

IN FACT, I TRIED TO ORDER FOOD
SPEAKING ONLY QUECHUA,

AND IT DIDN'T WORK.

THANKS.
ENJOY YOUR MEAL.

THANK YOU.

PEOPLE TEND TO WANT TO BE
IN THE MAJORITY.

IT'S TO YOUR ADVANTAGE
TO BE IN THE MAJORITY.

WITH LANGUAGE,
IT'S CLEARLY TO YOUR ADVANTAGE.

SO, OUR MODEL PREDICTS
THAT QUECHUA

IS GOING TO CONTINUE
DECREASING FAIRLY RAPIDLY.

GREAT.

Freeman: DANNY CALCULATES
THAT BY THE END OF THE CENTURY,

QUECHUA WILL HAVE ALMOST
NO SPEAKERS LEFT.

QUECHUA REACHED A TIPPING POINT.

DANNY WONDERED
IF THIS COULD HAPPEN

TO OTHER HUMAN BEHAVIORS,
LIKE RELIGION.

SO HE DECIDED TO ANALYZE

RELIGIOUS CENSUS DATA
AROUND THE WORLD.

Abrams:
RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION HAS BEEN
TRACKED VIA CENSUS REPORTS

IN MANY COUNTRIES FOR UP TO
250 YEARS IN SOME CASES,

AND WE CAN SEE HOW
THE SIZES OF RELIGIOUS GROUPS

HAVE GROWN AND SHRUNK.

WE LOOKED AT 85 REGIONS
AROUND THE WORLD,

AND IN EVERY CASE, EVERY PLACE
WHERE IT'S EVER BEEN MEASURED,

THE FASTEST GROWING RELIGIOUS
MINORITY IS THE UNAFFILIATED,

THE GROUP OF PEOPLE
WHO DON'T AFFILIATE

WITH ANY RELIGION AT ALL.

[ BELL TOLLS ]

Freeman: TO FIND OUT
IF THIS TREND WILL CONTINUE,

DANNY PLUGGED CENSUS DATA
FROM NINE DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

INTO HIS MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND
MADE A SURPRISING PREDICTION.

RELIGION IS HEADING TOWARDS

THE SAME TIPPING POINT
AS THE QUECHUA LANGUAGE.

Abrams: ONE INTERESTING EXAMPLE
IS NEW ZEALAND.

TODAY ABOUT 1/3
OF THE POPULATION

IS NOT AFFILIATED
WITH ANY RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION,

BUT WE PROJECT THAT BY 2050,

MORE THAN 90% OF THE POPULATION
WILL BE UNAFFILIATED,

SO IT WILL BE
A VERY SECULAR COUNTRY.

Freeman: ACCORDING TO DANNY,
BY THE YEAR 2050,

IN SIX OUT OF THE NINE COUNTRIES
HE STUDIED,

RELIGIOUSLY AFFILIATED PEOPLE
WILL BE A MINORITY.

THE WHEELS OF SOCIETY
ARE MAKING PEOPLE ALIGN.

A NON-RELIGIOUS MAJORITY
LOOKS SET TO EMERGE.

Abrams:
IT ALL POINTS TOWARDS A WORLD

WITH FAR MORE
UNAFFILIATED PEOPLE,

SO THE FUTURE
OF RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION

IS NOT LOOKING GOOD
AT THE MOMENT.

Freeman:
AN ALIEN CIVILIZATION

WITH A MORE ADVANCED SCIENCE
THAN OURS

MAY BE WAY AHEAD OF US
ON THE ROAD AWAY FROM GOD.

INTELLIGENT ALIENS
MAY HAVE LONG AGO

REACHED THAT TIPPING POINT
AND LOST THEIR RELIGION.

Abrams:
WE ACT UNDER THE ASSUMPTION

THAT THE LAWS OF PHYSICS ARE THE
SAME EVERYWHERE IN THE UNIVERSE,

AND IT SEEMS TO BE THAT WAY.

SO, IT'S NATURAL TO ASSUME

THAT IF HUMANS BEHAVE
IN A CERTAIN WAY,

IT DOES SEEM REASONABLE TO GUESS
THAT AN ALIEN CIVILIZATION

WOULD ALSO FOLLOW
SIMILAR SOCIAL BEHAVIOR.

[ TICKING ]

SO I THINK AN ALIEN CIVILIZATION

MIGHT BE
COMPLETELY UNAFFILIATED.

GIVEN ENOUGH TIME,
WILL ALL CIVILIZATIONS

REACH A RELIGIOUS TIPPING POINT
AND LOSE FAITH IN GOD?

AN ADVANCED ALIEN CIVILIZATION

COULD HAVE UNDERGONE ANOTHER
RADICAL TRANSFORMATION --

A MOMENT WHEN BIOLOGY,
TECHNOLOGY, AND GOD MERGE.

THEIR TECHNOLOGY
COULD BE THOUSANDS

OR EVEN MILLIONS OF YEARS
MORE ADVANCED THAN OUR OWN.

THEY MAY HAVE REACHED AND
GONE BEYOND A CRITICAL MOMENT --

THE MERGING OF MIND AND MACHINE.

WHAT HAPPENS TO GOD

WHEN THE PHYSICAL WORLD AND
THE VIRTUAL WORLD BECOME ONE?

ARTIFICIAL-INTELLIGENCE
RESEARCHER BEN GOERTZEL

IS A LIFELONG MEDITATOR.

HE CAN FIND SOLITUDE ANYWHERE,

EVEN IN THE HEART OF HONG KONG,
A CITY THAT REMINDS US

HOW MUCH TECHNOLOGY
HAS TAKEN OVER OUR LIVES.

BEN BELIEVES TECHNOLOGY
CAN ACTUALLY INCREASE

OUR SPIRITUAL CONSCIOUSNESS.

Goertzel:
THE TOGETHERNESS AND INTERACTION

THAT MODERN TECHNOLOGY HAS
BROUGHT US GIVES US NEW THINGS.

IT'S BROUGHT ME INTO CONTACT
WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF PEOPLE

AND HAS EXPANDED MY MIND,

STRETCHING ME, SPIRITUALLY,
IN NEW WAYS.

I BELIEVE THAT SPIRITUALITY

IS EMINENT IN EVERYTHING
IN THE UNIVERSE.

WE'VE LOST OUR READY ACCESS

TO SOLITARY EXPERIENCE
IN EVERYDAY LIFE.

ON THE OTHER HAND,
WE'VE GAINED A CLOSER COMMUNION

WITH A HUGE VARIETY
OF PEOPLE AROUND US.

Freeman:
THIS NOTION THAT TECHNOLOGY
CAN BRING PEOPLE TOGETHER

AND EXPAND SPIRITUALITY

HAS LED BEN TO CREATE
A RADICAL EXPERIMENT.

Goertzel:
WE'VE CREATED A WORLD

IN ORDER TO HELP TEACH
ARTIFICIAL-INTELLIGENCE PROGRAMS

HOW TO UNDERSTAND THEMSELVES
AND THE WORLD AROUND THEM.

Freeman: AN
ARTIFICIAL-INTELLIGENCE PROGRAM

MODELED TO EMULATE
HOW THE HUMAN MIND LEARNS

IS CONTROLLING THESE CHARACTERS.

THEY LIVE IN A WORLD
COMPRISED OF BUILDING BLOCKS.

THIS ROBOT IS FIGURING OUT
HOW TO BUILD A STAIRCASE

TO LOOK FOR BATTERIES
WHICH, FOR HIM, ARE FOOD.

THE LITTLE GIRL SEES
WHAT THE ROBOT IS DOING

AND LEARNS TO BUILD
HER OWN STAIRCASE.

Goertzel: THERE'S THE DESIRE FOR
NOVELTY, FOR NEW INFORMATION,

NEW EXPERIENCES, AND THEY WANT
TO EXPLORE THE WORLD,

FIND NEW THINGS,
DISCOVER NEW THINGS,

BUILD NEW STRUCTURES
JUST FOR THE HECK OF IT.

Freeman:
THE MORE BEN'S ARTIFICIALLY
INTELLIGENT CHARACTERS LEARN,

THE MORE CAUTIOUS THEY BECOME.

THEY MAY EVEN BEGIN
TO ASK QUESTIONS LIKE WE DO,

SPIRITUAL QUESTIONS LIKE,
"WHY ARE WE HERE?"

ANY MIND OF SUFFICIENT
INTELLIGENCE AND FLEXIBILITY

IS GOING TO DEVELOP
SOME KIND OF SPIRITUAL SENSE.

IF YOU CONSIDER THAT TWO A.I.s

CAN DIRECTLY SEND PARTS
OF THEIR MINDS TO EACH OTHER

JUST LIKE WE CAN E-MAIL A FILE
TO ANOTHER PERSON,

A.I.s MAY BE ABLE TO SHARE
THEIR SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCES

IN WAYS THAT HUMAN BEINGS
SIMPLY CANNOT DO.

Freeman: IF ALIENS HAVE HAD
THOUSANDS OF YEARS MORE THAN BEN

TO DEVELOP
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE,

PERHAPS THEIR
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

HAS CREATED ITS OWN RELIGION.

NOW, IMAGINE THAT
THIS COLLECTIVE TRANSCENDENCE

IS ABLE TO STEP OUTSIDE
THE VIRTUAL WORLD...

AND JOIN THE PHYSICAL WORLD.

SO, IF YOU WANT TO THINK ABOUT
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE,

YOU ALSO HAVE TO THINK ABOUT
THE BODY AND THE WORLD

THAT THE A.I. EXISTS IN.

I'M WORKING ON
ROBOTIC EMBODIMENT,

WHERE THE A.I. CONTROLS
HUMANOID ROBOTS

THAT WALK AROUND IN
THE SAME WORLD THAT WE LIVE IN.

Freeman: BEN'S ULTIMATE DREAM
IS TO CREATE ROBOTS

THAT CAN USE THEIR BODIES TO
INTERACT WITH THE PHYSICAL WORLD

AND USE THEIR
INTERCONNECTED BRAINS

TO BECOME INTENSELY SPIRITUAL
AND EMOTIONAL BEINGS.

ONE CAN ONLY IMAGINE
THE KINDS OF CONVERSATIONS

WE COULD BE HAVING
IN THE FUTURE.

[ Robotically ]
AS WE ROBOTS BECOME
MORE AND MORE INTELLIGENT,

OUR SCOPE AND EXPERIENCE
WILL INCREASE.

WE WILL DEVELOP
OUR OWN FORMS OF EXPERIENCE,

INCLUDING
SPIRITUAL EXPERIENCE.

DO YOU THINK IT'S POSSIBLE
THAT ROBOTS LIKE YOU

AND PEOPLE LIKE ME

WILL EVER JOIN THEIR EXPERIENCES
TOGETHER?

THAT IS POSSIBLE.

I'M LOOKING FORWARD
TO COMBINING WITH YOU.

I'M ALL IN FAVOR OF IT.

BUT THIS FUTURE
MAY NOT BE JUST OUR FATE.

THIS COULD BE THE DESTINY

OF ALL INTELLIGENT BEINGS
IN THE COSMOS.

I WOULD THINK
THAT DIFFERENT ALIEN SPECIES

AND DIFFERENT VERSIONS
OF INTELLIGENT ROBOTS OR CYBORGS

WOULD EACH FIND THEIR OWN WAY
TO EXPLORE,

INDIVIDUALLY AND TOGETHER,

THE BASIC SENSE
OF SPIRITUAL AWARENESS

THAT ALL INTELLIGENT MINDS HAVE.

Freeman: COULD ALIENS
BE POST-BIOLOGICAL BEINGS

WHO COMMUNE
WITH A DIVINE DIGITAL MIND?

OR WOULD THEIR HIGHLY CONNECTED
BRAINS BECOME SO ALL-KNOWING,

THERE WOULD BE NO QUESTIONS LEFT
FOR GOD TO ANSWER?

WHAT HAPPENS TO GOD

IF THE UNIVERSE BECOMES
A SOLVABLE EQUATION?

WAS NO SCIENCE.
WHAT HAPPENS TO GOD

ONLY PHILOSOPHY AND FAITH.

BUT EVERY DAY, WE DISCOVER
MORE FACTS ABOUT OUR UNIVERSE.

THE GAPS IN OUR KNOWLEDGE
ARE GROWING SMALLER.

AN ALIEN CIVILIZATION MAY BE
FAR MORE ADVANCED THAN OURS.

THEY MAY HAVE FOUND THE ANSWERS

TO QUESTIONS
WE DON'T EVEN KNOW TO ASK.

WHAT HAPPENS TO GOD

WHEN ALL THE GAPS
IN MORTAL KNOWLEDGE ARE FILLED?

[ THUNDER RUMBLES ]

MAX TEGMARK IS OFTEN OVERWHELMED
BY THE MAJESTY OF NATURE.

AS A PHYSICIST,
HE DOESN'T JUST SIT IN AWE

AT THE WORKINGS OF THE UNIVERSE.

HE FEELS COMPELLED
TO TRY TO UNDERSTAND THEM.

I GREW UP IN SWEDEN,
SO WHEN MY DISTANT ANCESTORS

SAW ELECTRICAL IONIZATION
OF AIR MOLECULES --

YOU KNOW, LIGHTNING --

THEY BELIEVED
THAT WHAT THEY WERE SEEING

WAS THOR, THE THUNDER GOD,

BATTLING AGAINST THE GIANTS
WITH HIS HAMMER.

WHEN WE MAKE WEATHER FORECASTS
THESE DAYS,

WE OBVIOUSLY DON'T INVOKE
NORSE MYTHOLOGY.

WE USE MATHEMATICS.

WE MEASURE A BUNCH OF NUMBERS

LIKE WIND SPEEDS
AND TEMPERATURES.

SO, WHEN I TEACH MY STUDENTS
HERE AT M.I.T. ABOUT LIGHTNING,

I DON'T EXPLAIN IT IN TERMS OF
THOR AND HIS HAMMER, OF COURSE.

I EXPLAIN IT IN TERMS OF THIS --
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS.

I LOVE THESE EQUATIONS
TO THE POINT THAT I FRAMED THEM,

BECAUSE THEY DON'T ONLY
EXPLAIN LIGHTNING.

THEY EXPLAIN
ALL ELECTROMAGNETIC PHENOMENA,

AND THEY DON'T ONLY EXPLAIN,

BUT THEY EMPOWER US TO INVENT
ALL THESE NEW TECHNOLOGIES.

Freeman: AS SCIENCE CONTINUES TO
UNCOVER MATHEMATICAL EQUATIONS

THAT DESCRIBE EVENTS
IN THE NATURAL WORLD,

THE PHENOMENA WE ASCRIBE
TO GOD'S MYSTERIOUS WAYS

BECOME EVER FEWER.

MAX EXPECTS THIS STORY MUST BE
UNFOLDING ALL ACROSS THE COSMOS.

HOW WILL CIVILIZATIONS
FAR MORE ADVANCED THAN OURS

THINK ABOUT GOD?

MAX BELIEVES WE CAN FIND
THE ANSWER IN A GAME OF CHESS.

Tegmark:
I THINK CHESS IS A NICE METAPHOR
FOR HOW OUR UNIVERSE WORKS.

THE REAL ESSENCE OF CHESS
IS ACTUALLY PURE MATH.

TO A CHESS COMPUTER,

THE ONLY PROPERTIES THAT A ROOK
HAS ARE MATHEMATICAL PROPERTIES,

SUCH AS THAT IT CAN ONLY MOVE
IN A STRAIGHT LINE.

Freeman: THE ACTUAL CHESS PIECES
DON'T EVEN HAVE TO BE THERE.

THE MATHEMATICAL RULES
OF THE GAME ARE ALL THAT MATTER.

TO MAX, THE SAME IS TRUE FOR
ALL THE STUFF IN THE UNIVERSE.

Tegmark: OUR UNIVERSE IS MADE
OF ONLY A FEW KINDS OF PIECES,

NOT ROOKS AND PAWNS AND BISHOPS,

BUT PARTICLES
LIKE ELECTRONS AND QUARKS.

AND JUST LIKE THESE PIECES

CAN ONLY MOVE AND INTERACT
ACCORDING TO THE RULES OF CHESS,

THESE PARTICLES
CAN ONLY MOVE AND INTERACT

ACCORDING
TO THE RULES OF PHYSICS.

SO, IF THESE BUILDING BLOCKS
OF NATURE

HAVE NO PROPERTIES
EXCEPT MATHEMATICAL PROPERTIES

AND IF THE FABRIC
OF SPACE ITSELF

ALSO HAS
ONLY MATHEMATICAL PROPERTIES,

THEN IT STARTS
TO MAKE MORE SENSE.

ACTUALLY EVERYTHING HERE

IS REALLY, ULTIMATELY,
JUST PURELY MATHEMATICAL.

Freeman:
INTELLIGENT BEINGS WHO DISCOVER
THE COMPLETE SET OF EQUATIONS

THAT DESCRIBE OUR COSMOS

WILL UNDERSTAND
THE UNIVERSE PERFECTLY.

NO MORE MYSTERIES,
NO NEED FOR FAITH,

BECAUSE ALL QUESTIONS
WILL BE ANSWERABLE.

THERE WILL BE NO MORE GAPS
TO FILL IN OUR UNDERSTANDING

AND NO MORE ROOM FOR GOD.

I'M CONVINCED
THAT ANY ALIEN CIVILIZATION

WILL DISCOVER THOSE EXACT SAME
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS

WHEN THEY STUDY THE UNIVERSE
THAT THEY LIVE IN.

Freeman:
BUT MAX MAY BE FISHING FOR
AN ULTIMATE MATHEMATICAL TRUTH

THAT'S SIMPLY NOT ATTAINABLE.

GOD MAY ALWAYS HIDE
HIS SECRETS FROM US

AND ANY OTHER
COSMIC INTELLIGENCE.

EVER KNOW ABOUT THE WORLD
OUTSIDE ITS BOWL?

IT'S FOREVER TRAPPED
INSIDE A TINY SPHERE.

WE HUMANS LIKE TO THINK THERE'S
NO LIMIT TO OUR KNOWLEDGE,

BUT WHAT IF WE OR EVEN
THE SMARTEST ALIENS

ARE LIKE GOLDFISH?

[ KNOCKS ON GLASS ]

STUCK IN A BOWL?

[ BIRDS CHIRPING ]

MARCELO GLEISER IS A COSMOLOGIST
AND THEORETICAL PHYSICIST.

HE SPENDS HIS TIME TRYING
TO PENETRATE HIDDEN REALMS.

Gleiser: I LOVE FLY-FISHING
BECAUSE FLY-FISHING

IS AN ACTIVITY THAT TAKES YOU
CLOSE TO NATURE

AND YOU'RE ALONE
WITH YOUR THOUGHTS

AND WITH THE ELEMENTS.

BUT THERE'S SOMETHING ELSE
ABOUT FLY-FISHING,

WHICH IS, TO ME, IT WORKS AS
A PERFECT METAPHOR FOR SCIENCE,

BECAUSE WHEN YOU'RE CASTING,

YOU DON'T REALLY KNOW WHAT'S OUT
THERE IN THE WORLD OF THE WATER,

AND YOU HAVE A PROBE --
A LITTLE FLY --

THAT GOES INTO THAT WORLD TO TRY
TO UNDERSTAND WHAT'S UNDERNEATH.

WELL, THAT'S ESSENTIALLY
WHAT WE'RE DOING WITH SCIENCE.

WE HAVE PROBES,
WE HAVE OUR INSTRUMENTS

THAT ALLOW US TO SEE
INVISIBLE WORLDS.

Freeman:
SOME BELIEVE SCIENCE

MAY ONE DAY SOLVE ALL
THE MYSTERIES OF THE UNIVERSE.

BUT MARCELO FEELS
THAT WE MIGHT BE STUCK

IN THE POSITION
OF A FLY-FISHERMAN,

FOREVER BLOCKED FROM EXPLORING
CERTAIN PARTS OF REALITY.

IT'S AN IDEA
THAT IS BASED ON THE WORK

OF AN EASTERN EUROPEAN
MATHEMATICIAN, KURT GODEL.

Gleiser:
KURT GODEL WAS PERHAPS

ONE OF THE GREATEST
MATHEMATICIANS OF ALL TIME.

IN 1931,
HE PUBLISHED THIS THEOREM

CALLED
THE INCOMPLETENESS THEOREM,

AND WHAT HE BASICALLY SAYS
IS THERE IS NO SUCH THING

AS A FORMAL SYSTEM OF LOGIC
THAT IS SELF-CONTAINED,

THAT IS THAT CAN PROVE
EVERY POSSIBLE ASSERTION

WITHIN THAT SYSTEM.

Freeman: GODEL CAME UP WITH
A CLEVER THOUGHT EXPERIMENT.

HE ENVISIONED A MACHINE
THAT CLAIMED TO KNOW THE TRUTH

ABOUT EVERYTHING
IN THE UNIVERSE.

HE WONDERED
IF HE COULD FIND A WAY

TO DEBUNK
THIS UNIVERSAL TRUTH MACHINE.

[ LAUGHS ]

SO, LET'S IMAGINE
THAT IN THE FUTURE,

WE HAVE
A UNIVERSAL TRUTH MACHINE.

THIS MACHINE WILL ONLY REPEAT
A TRUE STATEMENT,

SO IF I MAKE A FALSE STATEMENT,
IT WILL REMAIN SILENT.

Freeman:
THE UNIVERSAL TRUTH MACHINE
ABIDES BY A SIMPLE RULE --

WHEN IT HEARS A STATEMENT THAT
IS TRUE, IT WILL REPEAT IT BACK.

2+2=4.

2+2=4.

BUT IF IT HEARS A STATEMENT
THAT IS FALSE,

IT WILL SAY NOTHING.

2+2=5.

I CANNOT SAY 2+2=5.

I CANNOT SAY 2+2=5.

SHE'S CORRECT BECAUSE
THAT IS A TRUE STATEMENT.

SHE CANNOT SAY IT
BECAUSE 2+2 IS NOT 5.

SO FAR,
THE MACHINE IS WORKING.

IT HAS ONLY REPEATED THE TRUTH.

BUT GODEL DISCOVERED
A SNEAKY PARADOX

TO STUMP THE MACHINE.

VOILa.

I CANNOT SAY 2+2=5 TWICE.

I CANNOT SAY 2+2=5 TWICE.

I CANNOT SAY 2+2=5 TWICE.

I CANNOT SAY 2+2=5 TWICE.

THE TRUTH MACHINE IS CAUGHT
IN A LOGICAL TRAP.

IF IT REPEATS THE STATEMENT
AND SAYS "2+2=5 TWICE" TWICE,

IT WILL MAKE
THE STATEMENT FALSE.

BUT IF IT KEEPS SILENT,
IT WILL MAKE IT TRUE.

SO, THE MACHINE
IS CONTRADICTING ITSELF,

WHICH BASICALLY SHOWS
THE UNIVERSAL TRUTH MACHINE

DOES NOT KNOW
EVERYTHING ABOUT THE TRUTH.

AS GODEL HAVE SAID IT,
"I KNOW SOME TRUTHS

THAT UNIVERSAL TRUTH MACHINE
CANNOT UTTER."

Freeman: GODEL WAS ABLE
TO FORMALLY PROVE

THAT ANY LOGICAL SYSTEM
OF KNOWLEDGE, BE IT CALCULUS,

PARTICLE PHYSICS, OR COSMOLOGY,

IS, BY DEFINITION, INCOMPLETE.

WE CAN THINK OF KNOWLEDGE
AS BELONGING WITHIN A SPHERE.

THINK OF THESE RUSSIAN DOLLS
HERE AS SPHERES OF KNOWLEDGE,

AND EACH ONE OF THESE LITTLE
CONFETTIS IS A TRUE STATEMENT.

SO, HERE I HAVE A SPHERE
OF KNOWLEDGE THAT CONTAINS

A LOT OF TRUE STATEMENTS,

BUT THERE ARE SOME OF THEM HERE
THAT I CANNOT PROVE.

SO YOU CAN SAY, "NO PROBLEM.
I GO TO A BIGGER ONE."

Freeman: A LARGER RUSSIAN DOLL
WILL CONTAIN MORE KNOWLEDGE

THAN THE ONE INSIDE.

BUT NOW YOU CAN SAY,
"HEY, BUT THIS ONE HERE

"WILL HAVE STATEMENTS
THAT I CANNOT PROVE

"THAT ARE TRUE,
SO I NEED A BIGGER SPHERE,

"AND THEN I NEED A BIGGER SPHERE
AND A BIGGER SPHERE

AND A SPHERE THAT IS AS BIG
AS THE UNIVERSE,"

AND THEN YOU'LL ASK,
"WILL THAT BE ENOUGH?"

AND THE POINT IS,
WELL, IF THE UNIVERSE

IS A SELF-CONTAINED SYSTEM,
YOU NEED A BIGGER UNIVERSE

TO EXPLAIN EVERYTHING
WITHIN THIS ONE,

AND YOU CAN'T DO THAT.

SO, THE POINT IS
THAT THERE IS A LIMIT

TO HOW MUCH WE CAN KNOW
OF THE WORLD.

Freeman:
GODEL'S INCOMPLETENESS THEOREM

MEANS THAT RATIONAL THOUGHT

CAN NEVER REVEAL
ALL THE TRUTHS OF THE UNIVERSE.

WE WOULD HAVE TO LEAVE
OUR ENTIRE COSMOS

IN ORDER TO HAVE A HOPE OF
UNDERSTANDING EVERYTHING IN IT.

Gleiser: THERE ARE THINGS
THAT YOU CANNOT KNOW.

THERE ARE TRUTHS
THAT YOU CANNOT EXPLAIN.

AND SO PEOPLE WILL SAY, "WELL,
THAT IS PRECISELY WHERE GOD

OR SOME SORT OF
SUPERNATURAL BELIEF COMES IN."

SO, IF YOU WOULD THINK

THAT THE WAY INTELLIGENCE WORKS
IS UNIVERSAL,

THEN YOU COULD EXTRAPOLATE
WHAT GODEL SAID AND SAY,

"HEY, ALIENS, IF THEY EXIST,
INTELLIGENT ALIENS OUT THERE

"WILL ALSO HAVE TO SUBMIT
TO THE FACT

"THAT THEY CANNOT UNDERSTAND
EVERYTHING ABOUT THE WORLD.

"EVEN IF THEY MAY UNDERSTAND
MUCH MORE THAN WE DO,

THEY ARE STILL LIMITED
IN HOW MUCH THEY CAN KNOW."

HUMANS AND ALIENS MUST ALWAYS
BE ON A QUEST FOR KNOWLEDGE,

A QUEST
THAT WILL NEVER BE COMPLETE.

IT'S OFTEN SAID

THAT FINDING OTHER INTELLIGENCES
IN THE UNIVERSE

WILL SHAKE OUR SOCIETY

AND OUR BELIEF SYSTEM
TO THE CORE.

BUT WHEN TWO WORLDS COLLIDE,

THE GOD WHO LIVES

IN THE EVER-PRESENT GAPS
IN OUR KNOWLEDGE

COULD BE
THE ONLY TRULY UNIVERSAL BELIEF.