American Experience (1988–…): Season 16, Episode 1 - New York: Center of the World - full transcript

For
nearly 400 years, ever since the
soft September morning in 1609

nearly 400 years, ever since the
soft September morning in 1609
when Henry Hudson first steered

soft September morning in 1609
when Henry Hudson first steered
his ship into the shimmering

when Henry Hudson first steered
his ship into the shimmering
green waters of the Upper Bay,

his ship into the shimmering
green waters of the Upper Bay,
New York's destiny had been

green waters of the Upper Bay,
New York's destiny had been
inextricably connected to other

New York's destiny had been
inextricably connected to other
parts of the globe.

Inextricably connected to other
parts of the globe.
Founded by the Dutch as a remote

parts of the globe.
Founded by the Dutch as a remote
outpost in a worldwide network

Founded by the Dutch as a remote
outpost in a worldwide network
of trading colonies, it had

outpost in a worldwide network
of trading colonies, it had
moved in the course of its first



of trading colonies, it had
moved in the course of its first
300 years from the far edge of

moved in the course of its first
300 years from the far edge of
empire to the very center of the

300 years from the far edge of
empire to the very center of the
world, rising to greatness as

empire to the very center of the
world, rising to greatness as
America itself rose to greatness

world, rising to greatness as
America itself rose to greatness
in the course of the 19th

America itself rose to greatness
in the course of the 19th
century, gathering in money and

in the course of the 19th
century, gathering in money and
peoples from around the country

century, gathering in money and
peoples from around the country
and around the world.

Peoples from around the country
and around the world.
It had emerged by the dawn of

and around the world.
It had emerged by the dawn of
the 20th century as the

It had emerged by the dawn of
the 20th century as the
unofficial capital and supreme

the 20th century as the
unofficial capital and supreme
laboratory of a new kind of

unofficial capital and supreme
laboratory of a new kind of
mixed and cosmopolitan culture.

Laboratory of a new kind of
mixed and cosmopolitan culture.
In the century to come, reaching



mixed and cosmopolitan culture.
In the century to come, reaching
higher and projecting farther

In the century to come, reaching
higher and projecting farther
than any other city on earth, it

higher and projecting farther
than any other city on earth, it
had become the epicenter of a

than any other city on earth, it
had become the epicenter of a
new kind of global economic

had become the epicenter of a
new kind of global economic
order, restlessly pushing itself

new kind of global economic
order, restlessly pushing itself
out across the world, until the

order, restlessly pushing itself
out across the world, until the
skyline of New York had become

out across the world, until the
skyline of New York had become
one of the most powerful and

skyline of New York had become
one of the most powerful and
instantly recognizable symbols

one of the most powerful and
instantly recognizable symbols
on the face of the planet.

Instantly recognizable symbols
on the face of the planet.
And yet, in ways that would

on the face of the planet.
And yet, in ways that would
become fully apparent only in

And yet, in ways that would
become fully apparent only in
hindsight, by the dawn of the

become fully apparent only in
hindsight, by the dawn of the
21st century, New York had also

hindsight, by the dawn of the
21st century, New York had also
emerged as one of the most

21st century, New York had also
emerged as one of the most
strangely paradoxical cities on

emerged as one of the most
strangely paradoxical cities on
Earth, at once bewilderingly

strangely paradoxical cities on
Earth, at once bewilderingly
diverse and cosmopolitan, and

Earth, at once bewilderingly
diverse and cosmopolitan, and
yet in many ways surprisingly

diverse and cosmopolitan, and
yet in many ways surprisingly
insular and inward-looking, as

yet in many ways surprisingly
insular and inward-looking, as
if the process of globalization

insular and inward-looking, as
if the process of globalization
had mainly meant gathering in

if the process of globalization
had mainly meant gathering in
the world's peoples and riches

had mainly meant gathering in
the world's peoples and riches
without involvement in the

the world's peoples and riches
without involvement in the
world's deep conflicts and

without involvement in the
world's deep conflicts and
divisions.

World's deep conflicts and
divisions.
Well, I think

divisions.
Well, I think
the experience of globalization

Well, I think
the experience of globalization
for Americans, and particularly

the experience of globalization
for Americans, and particularly
for New Yorkers, was very

for Americans, and particularly
for New Yorkers, was very
lopsided.

For New Yorkers, was very
lopsided.
They thought they could have the

lopsided.
They thought they could have the
benefits of a globalized economy

They thought they could have the
benefits of a globalized economy
and none of the costs.

Benefits of a globalized economy
and none of the costs.
They thought you could globalize

and none of the costs.
They thought you could globalize
economics, but not politics, not

They thought you could globalize
economics, but not politics, not
violence, and in a sense that

economics, but not politics, not
violence, and in a sense that
the tools of globalization...

Violence, and in a sense that
the tools of globalization...
skyscrapers, jets... could only

the tools of globalization...
skyscrapers, jets... could only
be used for benign purposes.

Skyscrapers, jets... could only
be used for benign purposes.
The notion that these tools

be used for benign purposes.
The notion that these tools
could be used for destruction

The notion that these tools
could be used for destruction
and the pursuit of extreme

could be used for destruction
and the pursuit of extreme
ideological objectives,

and the pursuit of extreme
ideological objectives,
specifically anti-American,

ideological objectives,
specifically anti-American,
anti-global objectives, had

specifically anti-American,
anti-global objectives, had
dawned, I think, to relatively

anti-global objectives, had
dawned, I think, to relatively
few people.

Dawned, I think, to relatively
few people.
And so it came as literally a

few people.
And so it came as literally a
bolt from the blue when it

And so it came as literally a
bolt from the blue when it
happened.

Bolt from the blue when it
happened.
Though it would be

happened.
Though it would be
fully apparent to most Americans

Though it would be
fully apparent to most Americans
only after the great towers had

fully apparent to most Americans
only after the great towers had
fallen, to a remarkable degree,

only after the great towers had
fallen, to a remarkable degree,
the paradox of globalization

fallen, to a remarkable degree,
the paradox of globalization
would be seen in retrospect to

the paradox of globalization
would be seen in retrospect to
have come to a mighty

would be seen in retrospect to
have come to a mighty
culmination in the Twin Towers

have come to a mighty
culmination in the Twin Towers
of the World Trade Center, whose

culmination in the Twin Towers
of the World Trade Center, whose
extraordinary 50-year history

of the World Trade Center, whose
extraordinary 50-year history
had, it turned out, embodied

extraordinary 50-year history
had, it turned out, embodied
every theme and issue, every

had, it turned out, embodied
every theme and issue, every
tension and value, every paradox

every theme and issue, every
tension and value, every paradox
and contradiction of New York's

tension and value, every paradox
and contradiction of New York's
long and complex 400-year march

and contradiction of New York's
long and complex 400-year march
to the center of the world.

Long and complex 400-year march
to the center of the world.
Man: "America is part of

to the center of the world.
Man: "America is part of
everyone's imaginative life,

Man: "America is part of
everyone's imaginative life,
through movies, music,

everyone's imaginative life,
through movies, music,
television, and the web, whether

through movies, music,
television, and the web, whether
you grow up in Bilbao, Beijing,

television, and the web, whether
you grow up in Bilbao, Beijing,
or Bombay.

You grow up in Bilbao, Beijing,
or Bombay.
Everyone has a New York in their

or Bombay.
Everyone has a New York in their
heads, even if they have never

Everyone has a New York in their
heads, even if they have never
been there, which is why the

heads, even if they have never
been there, which is why the
destruction of the Twin Towers

been there, which is why the
destruction of the Twin Towers
had such an impact."

destruction of the Twin Towers
had such an impact."
Timothy Garton Ash, April 9,

had such an impact."
Timothy Garton Ash, April 9,
2002.

From director Rick Burns,
"The Center of the World," on
American Experience.

My love for
the Towers was in my relation
with them... not as an overall

the Towers was in my relation
with them... not as an overall
appreciation, almost in an

with them... not as an overall
appreciation, almost in an
architectural sense.

Appreciation, almost in an
architectural sense.
My love was for their life.

Architectural sense.
My love was for their life.
They were alive.

My love was for their life.
They were alive.
Not many people know that.

They were alive.
Not many people know that.
The people who build them know

Not many people know that.
The people who build them know
that.

The people who build them know
that.
They were vibrating with the

that.
They were vibrating with the
passage of a cloud over the sun,

They were vibrating with the
passage of a cloud over the sun,
a difference of temperature, the

passage of a cloud over the sun,
a difference of temperature, the
wind, and the skeleton was

a difference of temperature, the
wind, and the skeleton was
actually making noise.

Wind, and the skeleton was
actually making noise.
I discovered that, and at times,

actually making noise.
I discovered that, and at times,
the Towers were asleep,

I discovered that, and at times,
the Towers were asleep,
hibernating, and at times they

the Towers were asleep,
hibernating, and at times they
wake up and they cry, and they

hibernating, and at times they
wake up and they cry, and they
almost yell for help.

Wake up and they cry, and they
almost yell for help.
I think I love them from the

almost yell for help.
I think I love them from the
inside.

I think I love them from the
inside.
I didn't find them beautiful and

inside.
I didn't find them beautiful and
interesting at first sight.

I didn't find them beautiful and
interesting at first sight.
But as I get to know them, as I

interesting at first sight.
But as I get to know them, as I
found out that, to build those

But as I get to know them, as I
found out that, to build those
two monoliths, you had to had a

found out that, to build those
two monoliths, you had to had a
group of insane designer,

two monoliths, you had to had a
group of insane designer,
architect, structural engineer,

group of insane designer,
architect, structural engineer,
builders... hundreds of them for

architect, structural engineer,
builders... hundreds of them for
years.

Builders... hundreds of them for
years.
It became something to love.

Years.
It became something to love.
I love their strength and their

It became something to love.
I love their strength and their
arrogance, somehow.

I love their strength and their
arrogance, somehow.
They were so overlooking the

arrogance, somehow.
They were so overlooking the
skyline of New York.

They were so overlooking the
skyline of New York.
Somehow anything that is giant

skyline of New York.
Somehow anything that is giant
and manmade strikes me in an

Somehow anything that is giant
and manmade strikes me in an
awesome way and calls me, and I

and manmade strikes me in an
awesome way and calls me, and I
cannot see the highest towers

awesome way and calls me, and I
cannot see the highest towers
being built without wanting to

cannot see the highest towers
being built without wanting to
celebrate their birth right

being built without wanting to
celebrate their birth right
there.

For nearly 30 years,
they stood at the foot of lower
Manhattan, two of the tallest

they stood at the foot of lower
Manhattan, two of the tallest
and most instantly recognizable

Manhattan, two of the tallest
and most instantly recognizable
structures on earth, rising at

and most instantly recognizable
structures on earth, rising at
the heart of the most ravishing

structures on earth, rising at
the heart of the most ravishing
and well-known skyline in the

the heart of the most ravishing
and well-known skyline in the
world... the mightiest and most

and well-known skyline in the
world... the mightiest and most
ambivalent monuments of their

world... the mightiest and most
ambivalent monuments of their
age and, in the end, the most

ambivalent monuments of their
age and, in the end, the most
tragic.

Age and, in the end, the most
tragic.
Conceived in the giddy aftermath

tragic.
Conceived in the giddy aftermath
of World War II, and rising as

Conceived in the giddy aftermath
of World War II, and rising as
America itself rose to global

of World War II, and rising as
America itself rose to global
power in the decades following

America itself rose to global
power in the decades following
the war, they were destined to

power in the decades following
the war, they were destined to
become the real and symbolic

the war, they were destined to
become the real and symbolic
epicenter of an economic system

become the real and symbolic
epicenter of an economic system
that would come to dominate much

epicenter of an economic system
that would come to dominate much
of the face of the planet.

That would come to dominate much
of the face of the planet.
More than any other structures

of the face of the planet.
More than any other structures
of the age, they would be

More than any other structures
of the age, they would be
intimately bound up from start

of the age, they would be
intimately bound up from start
to finish with the awesome

intimately bound up from start
to finish with the awesome
forces reshaping New York in the

to finish with the awesome
forces reshaping New York in the
second half of the 20th century,

forces reshaping New York in the
second half of the 20th century,
and with the even greater forces

second half of the 20th century,
and with the even greater forces
propelling America itself

and with the even greater forces
propelling America itself
relentlessly upward and ever

propelling America itself
relentlessly upward and ever
outward across an increasingly

relentlessly upward and ever
outward across an increasingly
complex and interconnected

outward across an increasingly
complex and interconnected
globe.

Complex and interconnected
globe.
There was a

globe.
There was a
real sort of magnetic pull that

There was a
real sort of magnetic pull that
these buildings had around the

real sort of magnetic pull that
these buildings had around the
world.

These buildings had around the
world.
And, certainly, they were a very

world.
And, certainly, they were a very
convenient symbol, for those who

And, certainly, they were a very
convenient symbol, for those who
would want to destroy us, of

convenient symbol, for those who
would want to destroy us, of
capitalism, of the American

would want to destroy us, of
capitalism, of the American
system, of the 20th century, of

capitalism, of the American
system, of the 20th century, of
modernity, of all of those

system, of the 20th century, of
modernity, of all of those
things.

Modernity, of all of those
things.
And more than any symbol in

things.
And more than any symbol in
America, they said to the world

And more than any symbol in
America, they said to the world
not just "This is America," but

America, they said to the world
not just "This is America," but
"This is a modern place.

Not just "This is America," but
"This is a modern place.
This is a place of the 20th

"This is a modern place.
This is a place of the 20th
century."

This is a place of the 20th
century."
And that made them, I think, a

century."
And that made them, I think, a
very potent target in a whole

And that made them, I think, a
very potent target in a whole
different way.

Very potent target in a whole
different way.
The event was

different way.
The event was
not a strike just at New York;

The event was
not a strike just at New York;
it was at the heart of New York.

Not a strike just at New York;
it was at the heart of New York.
It was the place that was the

it was at the heart of New York.
It was the place that was the
womb of this city.

It was the place that was the
womb of this city.
It's where this city was born...

Womb of this city.
It's where this city was born...
that bunch of acres at the tip

It's where this city was born...
that bunch of acres at the tip
of Manhattan.

That bunch of acres at the tip
of Manhattan.
That thing holds all our

of Manhattan.
That thing holds all our
history, everything down there.

That thing holds all our
history, everything down there.
There's a kind of template that

history, everything down there.
There's a kind of template that
was cut geographically by the

There's a kind of template that
was cut geographically by the
Dutch and the English that still

was cut geographically by the
Dutch and the English that still
exists to this day.

Dutch and the English that still
exists to this day.
And it was the city that made

exists to this day.
And it was the city that made
all the rest of the city

And it was the city that made
all the rest of the city
possible.

All the rest of the city
possible.
The genius that accumulated,

possible.
The genius that accumulated,
impacted, and collided in those

The genius that accumulated,
impacted, and collided in those
streets... that handful of

impacted, and collided in those
streets... that handful of
streets below Chambers Street...

Streets... that handful of
streets below Chambers Street...
was the city that created the

streets below Chambers Street...
was the city that created the
imagination to first go up, to

was the city that created the
imagination to first go up, to
make a vertical city out of a

imagination to first go up, to
make a vertical city out of a
horizontal city.

Make a vertical city out of a
horizontal city.
So that when they hit that, they

horizontal city.
So that when they hit that, they
hit where our civilization

So that when they hit that, they
hit where our civilization
began.

Hit where our civilization
began.
Civilization comes from the same

began.
Civilization comes from the same
root as "civic" and of "city."

Civilization comes from the same
root as "civic" and of "city."
It's a thing that happens in

root as "civic" and of "city."
It's a thing that happens in
cities.

It's a thing that happens in
cities.
And they came smashing into it,

cities.
And they came smashing into it,
vandalizing it.

And they came smashing into it,
vandalizing it.
Like almost all great

vandalizing it.
Like almost all great
skyscrapers, it was fated to be

Like almost all great
skyscrapers, it was fated to be
a structure at once of its time

skyscrapers, it was fated to be
a structure at once of its time
and yet, partly for that reason,

a structure at once of its time
and yet, partly for that reason,
poignantly out of time, too,

and yet, partly for that reason,
poignantly out of time, too,
rising at the very end of a

poignantly out of time, too,
rising at the very end of a
great building boom, on the cusp

rising at the very end of a
great building boom, on the cusp
of great change.

Great building boom, on the cusp
of great change.
Raised into the sky during one

of great change.
Raised into the sky during one
of the most tumultuous and

Raised into the sky during one
of the most tumultuous and
complex periods in the city's

of the most tumultuous and
complex periods in the city's
history, by a unique combination

complex periods in the city's
history, by a unique combination
of pride, ambition, audacity,

history, by a unique combination
of pride, ambition, audacity,
greed, idealism, ingenuity, and

of pride, ambition, audacity,
greed, idealism, ingenuity, and
folly, the colossal towers were

greed, idealism, ingenuity, and
folly, the colossal towers were
in many ways the last of their

folly, the colossal towers were
in many ways the last of their
kind, and a mighty culmination...

In many ways the last of their
kind, and a mighty culmination...
the stunning climax of more than

kind, and a mighty culmination...
the stunning climax of more than
70 years of building tall on the

the stunning climax of more than
70 years of building tall on the
island of Manhattan, and the

70 years of building tall on the
island of Manhattan, and the
last and most controversial of

island of Manhattan, and the
last and most controversial of
the massive urban renewal

last and most controversial of
the massive urban renewal
projects that would transform

the massive urban renewal
projects that would transform
New York during the postwar

projects that would transform
New York during the postwar
period.

New York during the postwar
period.
The effort it would take just to

period.
The effort it would take just to
get them off the ground... to say

The effort it would take just to
get them off the ground... to say
nothing of raising the two

get them off the ground... to say
nothing of raising the two
largest structures in the world

nothing of raising the two
largest structures in the world
more than a quarter of a mile

largest structures in the world
more than a quarter of a mile
into the sky, from the tangled

more than a quarter of a mile
into the sky, from the tangled
streets of the most densely

into the sky, from the tangled
streets of the most densely
concentrated business district

streets of the most densely
concentrated business district
on earth... would require the

concentrated business district
on earth... would require the
greatest convergence of public

on earth... would require the
greatest convergence of public
and private power the city had

greatest convergence of public
and private power the city had
ever seen, and embroil their

and private power the city had
ever seen, and embroil their
builders in every conflict and

ever seen, and embroil their
builders in every conflict and
tension of the age.

Builders in every conflict and
tension of the age.
I think you

tension of the age.
I think you
should think of the Twin Towers

I think you
should think of the Twin Towers
as, in one sense, the moon shot

should think of the Twin Towers
as, in one sense, the moon shot
of structural engineering and

as, in one sense, the moon shot
of structural engineering and
skyscraper construction.

Of structural engineering and
skyscraper construction.
They were unprecedented in the

skyscraper construction.
They were unprecedented in the
same way that the NASA program,

They were unprecedented in the
same way that the NASA program,
the Apollo program was, in

same way that the NASA program,
the Apollo program was, in
virtually the same era.

The Apollo program was, in
virtually the same era.
And they had similar ambitions.

Virtually the same era.
And they had similar ambitions.
Just in terms of quantity, they

And they had similar ambitions.
Just in terms of quantity, they
were the biggest.

Just in terms of quantity, they
were the biggest.
They were 10 million square feet

were the biggest.
They were 10 million square feet
of space.

They were 10 million square feet
of space.
Nothing had come remotely close

of space.
Nothing had come remotely close
to that number in terms of the

Nothing had come remotely close
to that number in terms of the
amount of real estate in one

to that number in terms of the
amount of real estate in one
complex.

Amount of real estate in one
complex.
They were the tallest.

Complex.
They were the tallest.
They were going to have to

They were the tallest.
They were going to have to
resist the forces of the wind

They were going to have to
resist the forces of the wind
and gravity in a way that was of

resist the forces of the wind
and gravity in a way that was of
a magnitude far greater than

and gravity in a way that was of
a magnitude far greater than
anything that had been done

a magnitude far greater than
anything that had been done
before.

Anything that had been done
before.
I mean, you often see projects

before.
I mean, you often see projects
that are audacious on a

I mean, you often see projects
that are audacious on a
technical level, on a political

that are audacious on a
technical level, on a political
level, on a human level.

Technical level, on a political
level, on a human level.
This project was audacious on

level, on a human level.
This project was audacious on
all those levels.

This project was audacious on
all those levels.
It was sort of a

all those levels.
It was sort of a
multidimensional exercise in

It was sort of a
multidimensional exercise in
hubris, you might say.

Multidimensional exercise in
hubris, you might say.
In some ways, I think they

hubris, you might say.
In some ways, I think they
overreached.

In some ways, I think they
overreached.
But that's the nature of the

overreached.
But that's the nature of the
game, when you're talking about

But that's the nature of the
game, when you're talking about
audacity and hubris.

Game, when you're talking about
audacity and hubris.
And in that sense, you just have

audacity and hubris.
And in that sense, you just have
to say, these things were

And in that sense, you just have
to say, these things were
wonders of the world, and we

to say, these things were
wonders of the world, and we
shall not see their like again.

Wonders of the world, and we
shall not see their like again.
In the end, the

shall not see their like again.
In the end, the
extraordinary 50-year saga of

In the end, the
extraordinary 50-year saga of
the World Trade Center... when

extraordinary 50-year saga of
the World Trade Center... when
and why it was built, how and

the World Trade Center... when
and why it was built, how and
where it went up, what its great

and why it was built, how and
where it went up, what its great
towers stood for, and how and

where it went up, what its great
towers stood for, and how and
why they fell... would tell more

towers stood for, and how and
why they fell... would tell more
than most people had ever

why they fell... would tell more
than most people had ever
imagined about the city and

than most people had ever
imagined about the city and
country that was their home,

imagined about the city and
country that was their home,
embodying along the way the

country that was their home,
embodying along the way the
highest hopes and deepest

embodying along the way the
highest hopes and deepest
contradictions of New York's

highest hopes and deepest
contradictions of New York's
century-long push into the sky,

contradictions of New York's
century-long push into the sky,
and of America's astonishing 50-

century-long push into the sky,
and of America's astonishing 50-
year expansion around the globe.

And of America's astonishing 50-
year expansion around the globe.
Well,

year expansion around the globe.
Well,
ironically, as important as the

Well,
ironically, as important as the
World Trade Center was for those

ironically, as important as the
World Trade Center was for those
30 years that it existed, or

World Trade Center was for those
30 years that it existed, or
almost 30 years... massive

30 years that it existed, or
almost 30 years... massive
building, 50,000 people in it

almost 30 years... massive
building, 50,000 people in it
working... in some ways it's more

building, 50,000 people in it
working... in some ways it's more
important to history now that

working... in some ways it's more
important to history now that
it's gone.

Important to history now that
it's gone.
It was significant, but it's a

it's gone.
It was significant, but it's a
world event in its absence.

It was significant, but it's a
world event in its absence.
The interest, the focus of the

world event in its absence.
The interest, the focus of the
world, and there may be wars

The interest, the focus of the
world, and there may be wars
that will happen from it.

World, and there may be wars
that will happen from it.
Millions and hundreds of

that will happen from it.
Millions and hundreds of
millions of people around the

Millions and hundreds of
millions of people around the
world are changing the way they

millions of people around the
world are changing the way they
live because of what happened at

world are changing the way they
live because of what happened at
the World Trade Center.

Live because of what happened at
the World Trade Center.
The city

the World Trade Center.
The city
lost so much.

The city
lost so much.
I think the experience that so

lost so much.
I think the experience that so
many people had of watching

I think the experience that so
many people had of watching
either on the television or in

many people had of watching
either on the television or in
the flesh has caused so much

either on the television or in
the flesh has caused so much
pain in the city of New York.

The flesh has caused so much
pain in the city of New York.
Everyone kno

pain in the city of New York.
Everyone kno
died... everyone does... and from

Everyone kno
died... everyone does... and from
all walks of life, poor people

died... everyone does... and from
all walks of life, poor people
and rich people, executives and

all walks of life, poor people
and rich people, executives and
office boys, all walks of life.

And rich people, executives and
office boys, all walks of life.
And that's what it lost.

Office boys, all walks of life.
And that's what it lost.
We know

And that's what it lost.
We know
what they stood for.

We know
what they stood for.
We know that they stood for

what they stood for.
We know that they stood for
something that made them

We know that they stood for
something that made them
vulnerable to the most horrible

something that made them
vulnerable to the most horrible
fate.

Vulnerable to the most horrible
fate.
And certainly they were a symbol

fate.
And certainly they were a symbol
of something dreadful to the

And certainly they were a symbol
of something dreadful to the
people who blew them up.

Of something dreadful to the
people who blew them up.
But New Yorkers found it a

people who blew them up.
But New Yorkers found it a
symbol of New York, the New York

But New Yorkers found it a
symbol of New York, the New York
they love.

Symbol of New York, the New York
they love.
And I think that has made this

they love.
And I think that has made this
terrible catastrophe even worse

And I think that has made this
terrible catastrophe even worse
to bear.

From start to finish,
the story of the World Trade
Center would be an extraordinary

the story of the World Trade
Center would be an extraordinary
parable of American power, a

Center would be an extraordinary
parable of American power, a
parable of the forces reshaping

parable of American power, a
parable of the forces reshaping
New York in the postwar period,

parable of the forces reshaping
New York in the postwar period,
and of those reshaping the

New York in the postwar period,
and of those reshaping the
globe.

And of those reshaping the
globe.
It wasn't about

globe.
It wasn't about
consensus back in those days.

It wasn't about
consensus back in those days.
It was about a very powerful

consensus back in those days.
It was about a very powerful
agency knowing how to get its

It was about a very powerful
agency knowing how to get its
way, busting through all

agency knowing how to get its
way, busting through all
obstacles, all objections, no

way, busting through all
obstacles, all objections, no
matter how valid.

Obstacles, all objections, no
matter how valid.
And that's just the way it

matter how valid.
And that's just the way it
worked.

And that's just the way it
worked.
It's just the way things got

worked.
It's just the way things got
done back then.

It's just the way things got
done back then.
It's the end of the era of great

done back then.
It's the end of the era of great
building, in a way.

It's the end of the era of great
building, in a way.
It's still a time when, even in

building, in a way.
It's still a time when, even in
a complicated municipality like

It's still a time when, even in
a complicated municipality like
New York, you can pull off a

a complicated municipality like
New York, you can pull off a
project like that, and you can

New York, you can pull off a
project like that, and you can
do it the way you want to do it.

Project like that, and you can
do it the way you want to do it.
This was the

do it the way you want to do it.
This was the
last great project, I think, of

This was the
last great project, I think, of
that scale for New York City,

last great project, I think, of
that scale for New York City,
and, you know, nothing has

that scale for New York City,
and, you know, nothing has
happened like it since and

and, you know, nothing has
happened like it since and
probably won't again.

Happened like it since and
probably won't again.
It just is a different era,

probably won't again.
It just is a different era,
which the public participates

It just is a different era,
which the public participates
much more in choosing the fate

which the public participates
much more in choosing the fate
of New York, and not just this

much more in choosing the fate
of New York, and not just this
small group of men in a back

of New York, and not just this
small group of men in a back
room that are deciding that they

small group of men in a back
room that are deciding that they
want to do something.

Room that are deciding that they
want to do something.
The idea was born in

want to do something.
The idea was born in
the triumphant months following

The idea was born in
the triumphant months following
the end of World War II, as a

the triumphant months following
the end of World War II, as a
new global order based on free

the end of World War II, as a
new global order based on free
and open trade began to emerge

new global order based on free
and open trade began to emerge
from the chaos of war, and as

and open trade began to emerge
from the chaos of war, and as
New York itself emerged for the

from the chaos of war, and as
New York itself emerged for the
first time as the undisputed

New York itself emerged for the
first time as the undisputed
capital of the world.

First time as the undisputed
capital of the world.
Well, 1945 was the

capital of the world.
Well, 1945 was the
end of a period of commercial

Well, 1945 was the
end of a period of commercial
catastrophe, a period in which

end of a period of commercial
catastrophe, a period in which
trade between the great

catastrophe, a period in which
trade between the great
economies of the world had all

trade between the great
economies of the world had all
but collapsed, and the lesson

economies of the world had all
but collapsed, and the lesson
that American policy makers drew

but collapsed, and the lesson
that American policy makers drew
from the disasters of the 1930s

that American policy makers drew
from the disasters of the 1930s
and 1940s was very

from the disasters of the 1930s
and 1940s was very
straightforward: the United

and 1940s was very
straightforward: the United
States must commit itself to the

straightforward: the United
States must commit itself to the
creation of a global free-trade

States must commit itself to the
creation of a global free-trade
order, which would ensure the

creation of a global free-trade
order, which would ensure the
prosperity of the United States,

order, which would ensure the
prosperity of the United States,
but also rapid economic growth

prosperity of the United States,
but also rapid economic growth
in the economies of America's

but also rapid economic growth
in the economies of America's
principal allies.

In the economies of America's
principal allies.
So after the Second World War,

principal allies.
So after the Second World War,
you have the creation of trade,

So after the Second World War,
you have the creation of trade,
monetary, diplomatic, and

you have the creation of trade,
monetary, diplomatic, and
military institutions, all

monetary, diplomatic, and
military institutions, all
fundamentally designed to

military institutions, all
fundamentally designed to
maintain an open free-trading

fundamentally designed to
maintain an open free-trading
world economy.

Maintain an open free-trading
world economy.
In the fall of 1946,

world economy.
In the fall of 1946,
as delegates to the brand-new

In the fall of 1946,
as delegates to the brand-new
United Nations settled on a site

as delegates to the brand-new
United Nations settled on a site
in midtown for their new home,

United Nations settled on a site
in midtown for their new home,
leaders in New York first

in midtown for their new home,
leaders in New York first
proposed building an immense new

leaders in New York first
proposed building an immense new
complex in the heart of lower

proposed building an immense new
complex in the heart of lower
Manhattan, a world trade center

complex in the heart of lower
Manhattan, a world trade center
that would exploit the

Manhattan, a world trade center
that would exploit the
anticipated postwar explosion in

that would exploit the
anticipated postwar explosion in
international trade, and affirm

anticipated postwar explosion in
international trade, and affirm
New York's newfound preeminence

international trade, and affirm
New York's newfound preeminence
within a vast and growing global

New York's newfound preeminence
within a vast and growing global
empire.

Within a vast and growing global
empire.
And the idea

empire.
And the idea
was to have a trade mart here

And the idea
was to have a trade mart here
that, by setting up big exhibit

was to have a trade mart here
that, by setting up big exhibit
centers and inviting people from

that, by setting up big exhibit
centers and inviting people from
around the world to come and see

centers and inviting people from
around the world to come and see
their goods and their wares, it

around the world to come and see
their goods and their wares, it
would further the interests of a

their goods and their wares, it
would further the interests of a
growing world trade.

Would further the interests of a
growing world trade.
And with that in mind, the state

growing world trade.
And with that in mind, the state
legislature assigned to Winthrop

And with that in mind, the state
legislature assigned to Winthrop
Aldrich, the head of Chase Bank,

legislature assigned to Winthrop
Aldrich, the head of Chase Bank,
a world trade center

Aldrich, the head of Chase Bank,
a world trade center
organization.

A world trade center
organization.
Ultimately, the idea

organization.
Ultimately, the idea
of a complex of buildings that

Ultimately, the idea
of a complex of buildings that
they would call the World Trade

of a complex of buildings that
they would call the World Trade
Center got thrown out, because

they would call the World Trade
Center got thrown out, because
the port interests were still of

Center got thrown out, because
the port interests were still of
such clout at that time that

the port interests were still of
such clout at that time that
they were able to say, "If

such clout at that time that
they were able to say, "If
you're going to spend money,

they were able to say, "If
you're going to spend money,
you're going to build new

you're going to spend money,
you're going to build new
piers."

you're going to build new
piers."
But by the time David

piers."
But by the time David
Rockefeller rises and replaces

But by the time David
Rockefeller rises and replaces
his uncle, Winthrop Aldrich, as

Rockefeller rises and replaces
his uncle, Winthrop Aldrich, as
the chief executive at Chase,

his uncle, Winthrop Aldrich, as
the chief executive at Chase,
it's a different place, New

the chief executive at Chase,
it's a different place, New
York, and the port is already on

it's a different place, New
York, and the port is already on
its way out.

York, and the port is already on
its way out.
And something needs to happen in

its way out.
And something needs to happen in
lower Manhattan if it's going to

And something needs to happen in
lower Manhattan if it's going to
regain the status that it once

lower Manhattan if it's going to
regain the status that it once
held as the world's financial

regain the status that it once
held as the world's financial
center and that it was losing.

Held as the world's financial
center and that it was losing.
It would take more

center and that it was losing.
It would take more
than a decade for the idea of

It would take more
than a decade for the idea of
the World Trade Center to begin

than a decade for the idea of
the World Trade Center to begin
to get off the ground, and four

the World Trade Center to begin
to get off the ground, and four
decades more to fulfill the

to get off the ground, and four
decades more to fulfill the
lofty promise of its name.

Decades more to fulfill the
lofty promise of its name.
When it did begin to take hold,

lofty promise of its name.
When it did begin to take hold,
however, in the late 1950s, it

When it did begin to take hold,
however, in the late 1950s, it
would be set in motion to a

however, in the late 1950s, it
would be set in motion to a
remarkable degree by just two

would be set in motion to a
remarkable degree by just two
men, sons and brothers of one of

remarkable degree by just two
men, sons and brothers of one of
the most powerful family

men, sons and brothers of one of
the most powerful family
dynasties on earth, who would

the most powerful family
dynasties on earth, who would
seize upon the idea not only as

dynasties on earth, who would
seize upon the idea not only as
a glorious symbol of world

seize upon the idea not only as
a glorious symbol of world
trade, but as the centerpiece of

a glorious symbol of world
trade, but as the centerpiece of
one of the most controversial

trade, but as the centerpiece of
one of the most controversial
and daring real estate gambles

one of the most controversial
and daring real estate gambles
in the history of New York City:

and daring real estate gambles
in the history of New York City:
the effort to save Lower

in the history of New York City:
the effort to save Lower
Manhattan, which less than ten

the effort to save Lower
Manhattan, which less than ten
years after the end of the war

Manhattan, which less than ten
years after the end of the war
had been sent spiraling into a

years after the end of the war
had been sent spiraling into a
period of steep decline, not

had been sent spiraling into a
period of steep decline, not
only by the waning of the port,

period of steep decline, not
only by the waning of the port,
but by an alarming exodus of

only by the waning of the port,
but by an alarming exodus of
businesses to the middle of the

but by an alarming exodus of
businesses to the middle of the
island.

Businesses to the middle of the
island.
Lower Manhattan,

island.
Lower Manhattan,
which I'll describe as the two

Lower Manhattan,
which I'll describe as the two
square miles from Chambers

which I'll describe as the two
square miles from Chambers
Street down to the Battery, was

square miles from Chambers
Street down to the Battery, was
dying.

Street down to the Battery, was
dying.
Companies were moving out,

dying.
Companies were moving out,
either to mid-Manhattan or

Companies were moving out,
either to mid-Manhattan or
really out of New York City.

Either to mid-Manhattan or
really out of New York City.
The only new building built

really out of New York City.
The only new building built
since World War II was the Chase

The only new building built
since World War II was the Chase
Manhattan building.

Since World War II was the Chase
Manhattan building.
And David Rockefeller was then

Manhattan building.
And David Rockefeller was then
the chairman of the Chase

And David Rockefeller was then
the chairman of the Chase
Manhattan Bank, and so David had

the chairman of the Chase
Manhattan Bank, and so David had
an idea.

Manhattan Bank, and so David had
an idea.
Why not create, using the Port

an idea.
Why not create, using the Port
Authority of New York and New

Why not create, using the Port
Authority of New York and New
Jersey, a world trade center,

Authority of New York and New
Jersey, a world trade center,
whatever that was?

Jersey, a world trade center,
whatever that was?
There are

whatever that was?
There are
different opinions about the

There are
different opinions about the
role and the motivations of the

different opinions about the
role and the motivations of the
Rockefellers in Lower Manhattan,

role and the motivations of the
Rockefellers in Lower Manhattan,
but certainly no one deserves

Rockefellers in Lower Manhattan,
but certainly no one deserves
more credit or blame than the

but certainly no one deserves
more credit or blame than the
brothers Rockefeller, David and

more credit or blame than the
brothers Rockefeller, David and
Nelson, for the changes that

brothers Rockefeller, David and
Nelson, for the changes that
came about in downtown in the

Nelson, for the changes that
came about in downtown in the
1960s.

Came about in downtown in the
1960s.
The flagship headquarters of

1960s.
The flagship headquarters of
Chase Manhattan Bank had always

The flagship headquarters of
Chase Manhattan Bank had always
been downtown since the 18th

Chase Manhattan Bank had always
been downtown since the 18th
century, and of course David

been downtown since the 18th
century, and of course David
Rockefeller, as the head of the

century, and of course David
Rockefeller, as the head of the
Chase Manhattan Bank, had

Rockefeller, as the head of the
Chase Manhattan Bank, had
tremendous interests in keeping

Chase Manhattan Bank, had
tremendous interests in keeping
the financial district secure.

Tremendous interests in keeping
the financial district secure.
I think one of the

the financial district secure.
I think one of the
fascinating things about the

I think one of the
fascinating things about the
Rockefellers as a family is that

fascinating things about the
Rockefellers as a family is that
they're monopoly capitalists,

Rockefellers as a family is that
they're monopoly capitalists,
and that gives them a certain

they're monopoly capitalists,
and that gives them a certain
attitude towards planning.

And that gives them a certain
attitude towards planning.
The Rockefellers thought big.

Attitude towards planning.
The Rockefellers thought big.
When they built Rockefeller

The Rockefellers thought big.
When they built Rockefeller
Center, they didn't build one

When they built Rockefeller
Center, they didn't build one
skyscraper; they built a

Center, they didn't build one
skyscraper; they built a
constellation of skyscrapers.

Skyscraper; they built a
constellation of skyscrapers.
They were into centers, you

constellation of skyscrapers.
They were into centers, you
know.

They were into centers, you
know.
They were into thinking of long-

know.
They were into thinking of long-
term plans.

They were into thinking of long-
term plans.
So they applied that mentality

term plans.
So they applied that mentality
everywhere.

So they applied that mentality
everywhere.
And the same attitude is

everywhere.
And the same attitude is
transferred when the next

And the same attitude is
transferred when the next
generation comes online, and

transferred when the next
generation comes online, and
here David is a particularly

generation comes online, and
here David is a particularly
interesting figure.

Here David is a particularly
interesting figure.
David's got big plans.

Interesting figure.
David's got big plans.
David wants to expand one of the

David's got big plans.
David wants to expand one of the
family banks, Chase Bank, which

David wants to expand one of the
family banks, Chase Bank, which
worked with big companies and

family banks, Chase Bank, which
worked with big companies and
financed the movement of trade

worked with big companies and
financed the movement of trade
goods around the world.

Financed the movement of trade
goods around the world.
And David wants to expand this

goods around the world.
And David wants to expand this
and then go beyond the old

And David wants to expand this
and then go beyond the old
national boundaries and sort of

and then go beyond the old
national boundaries and sort of
start thinking internationally.

National boundaries and sort of
start thinking internationally.
But he's got a short-term

start thinking internationally.
But he's got a short-term
problem.

But he's got a short-term
problem.
He merges with the Bank of the

problem.
He merges with the Bank of the
Manhattan company.

He merges with the Bank of the
Manhattan company.
He's got Chase Manhattan.

Manhattan company.
He's got Chase Manhattan.
He buys up lots of other little

He's got Chase Manhattan.
He buys up lots of other little
banks.

He buys up lots of other little
banks.
They're scattered all over the

banks.
They're scattered all over the
downtown area.

They're scattered all over the
downtown area.
He wants to, in fact, bring them

downtown area.
He wants to, in fact, bring them
together and consolidate.

He wants to, in fact, bring them
together and consolidate.
But it's in the middle of this

together and consolidate.
But it's in the middle of this
kind of sucking sound with all

But it's in the middle of this
kind of sucking sound with all
of these businesses being drawn

kind of sucking sound with all
of these businesses being drawn
up to where the real action is

of these businesses being drawn
up to where the real action is
up in midtown.

Up to where the real action is
up in midtown.
And the question is, are they

up in midtown.
And the question is, are they
going to make a stand?

And the question is, are they
going to make a stand?
Are they going to try to in fact

going to make a stand?
Are they going to try to in fact
save Lower Manhattan as the

Are they going to try to in fact
save Lower Manhattan as the
financial center?

Save Lower Manhattan as the
financial center?
Everybody knows that

financial center?
Everybody knows that
Chase Bank may be the most

Everybody knows that
Chase Bank may be the most
powerful bank in the world.

Chase Bank may be the most
powerful bank in the world.
David Rockefeller might be the

powerful bank in the world.
David Rockefeller might be the
second most powerful person in

David Rockefeller might be the
second most powerful person in
the United States after the

second most powerful person in
the United States after the
President.

The United States after the
President.
They're putting their bets in

President.
They're putting their bets in
Lower Manhattan saying, "Lower

They're putting their bets in
Lower Manhattan saying, "Lower
Manhattan either has to be

Lower Manhattan saying, "Lower
Manhattan either has to be
revitalized and rejuvenated, or

Manhattan either has to be
revitalized and rejuvenated, or
it's going to enter into a

revitalized and rejuvenated, or
it's going to enter into a
period of terminal decline."

it's going to enter into a
period of terminal decline."
In 1955, declaring

period of terminal decline."
In 1955, declaring
Lower Manhattan to be the "heart

In 1955, declaring
Lower Manhattan to be the "heart
pump of the capital blood that

Lower Manhattan to be the "heart
pump of the capital blood that
sustains the free world," David

pump of the capital blood that
sustains the free world," David
leapt into the fray.

Sustains the free world," David
leapt into the fray.
That November, he stunned Wall

leapt into the fray.
That November, he stunned Wall
Street by announcing that Chase

That November, he stunned Wall
Street by announcing that Chase
would build a gleaming new 60-

Street by announcing that Chase
would build a gleaming new 60-
story headquarters just one

would build a gleaming new 60-
story headquarters just one
block north of the Stock

story headquarters just one
block north of the Stock
Exchange, the first tall tower

block north of the Stock
Exchange, the first tall tower
to go up in the area since

Exchange, the first tall tower
to go up in the area since
before the Depression.

To go up in the area since
before the Depression.
Six months later, convinced in

before the Depression.
Six months later, convinced in
private meetings that even that

Six months later, convinced in
private meetings that even that
bold gesture would be not be

private meetings that even that
bold gesture would be not be
enough to save the financial

bold gesture would be not be
enough to save the financial
district, he assembled a

enough to save the financial
district, he assembled a
powerful coalition of business

district, he assembled a
powerful coalition of business
and real estate leaders called

powerful coalition of business
and real estate leaders called
the Downtown-Lower Manhattan

and real estate leaders called
the Downtown-Lower Manhattan
Association, and urged them to

the Downtown-Lower Manhattan
Association, and urged them to
develop an even more ambitious

Association, and urged them to
develop an even more ambitious
plan before it was too late.

Develop an even more ambitious
plan before it was too late.
You need bold

plan before it was too late.
You need bold
visions, you need bold action.

You need bold
visions, you need bold action.
You can't take small, little

visions, you need bold action.
You can't take small, little
piecemeal things.

You can't take small, little
piecemeal things.
That's not the way they operate.

Piecemeal things.
That's not the way they operate.
Rockefeller Center is not a

That's not the way they operate.
Rockefeller Center is not a
small, piecemeal action.

Rockefeller Center is not a
small, piecemeal action.
You have to make a profound

small, piecemeal action.
You have to make a profound
impact on the environment, and

You have to make a profound
impact on the environment, and
to do it spatially, and to do it

impact on the environment, and
to do it spatially, and to do it
in terms of the structure of the

to do it spatially, and to do it
in terms of the structure of the
economy, and it's got to be big

in terms of the structure of the
economy, and it's got to be big
scale, it's got to be blazing,

economy, and it's got to be big
scale, it's got to be blazing,
otherwise it doesn't do the

scale, it's got to be blazing,
otherwise it doesn't do the
trick.

Otherwise it doesn't do the
trick.
In the fall of 1958,

trick.
In the fall of 1958,
the Rockefeller-sponsored group

In the fall of 1958,
the Rockefeller-sponsored group
published its recommendations in

the Rockefeller-sponsored group
published its recommendations in
a stunning 80-page report.

Published its recommendations in
a stunning 80-page report.
A master plan for the salvation

a stunning 80-page report.
A master plan for the salvation
of Lower Manhattan, and one of

A master plan for the salvation
of Lower Manhattan, and one of
the most radical and sweeping

of Lower Manhattan, and one of
the most radical and sweeping
urban redevelopment projects

the most radical and sweeping
urban redevelopment projects
ever conceived, it called for

urban redevelopment projects
ever conceived, it called for
the complete transformation of

ever conceived, it called for
the complete transformation of
the entire downtown area, and

the complete transformation of
the entire downtown area, and
for the eradication of

the entire downtown area, and
for the eradication of
industries that had defined

for the eradication of
industries that had defined
Lower Manhattan for centuries.

Industries that had defined
Lower Manhattan for centuries.
They've been talking

Lower Manhattan for centuries.
They've been talking
about getting rid of the piers

They've been talking
about getting rid of the piers
and getting rid of the port and

about getting rid of the piers
and getting rid of the port and
getting rid of the marketplace

and getting rid of the port and
getting rid of the marketplace
for a long time.

Getting rid of the marketplace
for a long time.
All of that had gone into

for a long time.
All of that had gone into
abeyance during the Depression

All of that had gone into
abeyance during the Depression
and the war.

Abeyance during the Depression
and the war.
Now it's back on the table, and,

and the war.
Now it's back on the table, and,
David, with his own penchant for

Now it's back on the table, and,
David, with his own penchant for
planning, is in fact entranced

David, with his own penchant for
planning, is in fact entranced
by this.

Planning, is in fact entranced
by this.
Well,

by this.
Well,
downtown Manhattan area is one

Well,
downtown Manhattan area is one
of the most valuable and

downtown Manhattan area is one
of the most valuable and
uniquely situated pieces of real

of the most valuable and
uniquely situated pieces of real
estate in the entire world.

Uniquely situated pieces of real
estate in the entire world.
The central core area of

estate in the entire world.
The central core area of
towering skyscrapers is

The central core area of
towering skyscrapers is
surrounded by acres of marginal

towering skyscrapers is
surrounded by acres of marginal
buildings, the majority of which

surrounded by acres of marginal
buildings, the majority of which
are more than a century old and

buildings, the majority of which
are more than a century old and
only partly occupied.

Are more than a century old and
only partly occupied.
So what do they

only partly occupied.
So what do they
want?

So what do they
want?
They want a variety of things.

Want?
They want a variety of things.
First of all, they want to go on

They want a variety of things.
First of all, they want to go on
the attack against contending

First of all, they want to go on
the attack against contending
uses that are down there,

the attack against contending
uses that are down there,
because, from his perspective,

uses that are down there,
because, from his perspective,
we're ringed in.

Because, from his perspective,
we're ringed in.
We're surrounded by what he's

we're ringed in.
We're surrounded by what he's
now defining not as important,

We're surrounded by what he's
now defining not as important,
viable manufacturing and

now defining not as important,
viable manufacturing and
commerce and port industries,

viable manufacturing and
commerce and port industries,
but as ancient, antediluvian,

commerce and port industries,
but as ancient, antediluvian,
outmoded, dirty, dilapidated,

but as ancient, antediluvian,
outmoded, dirty, dilapidated,
you know, scuzzy, they're a

outmoded, dirty, dilapidated,
you know, scuzzy, they're a
drag.

You know, scuzzy, they're a
drag.
We want to get rid of them.

Drag.
We want to get rid of them.
We want to, in fact, expand the

We want to get rid of them.
We want to, in fact, expand the
financial core and have it take

We want to, in fact, expand the
financial core and have it take
over all of Lower Manhattan.

Financial core and have it take
over all of Lower Manhattan.
Get rid of these competing uses.

Over all of Lower Manhattan.
Get rid of these competing uses.
That's the only way we'll be

Get rid of these competing uses.
That's the only way we'll be
safe and secure.

That's the only way we'll be
safe and secure.
Make it a center, you know?

Safe and secure.
Make it a center, you know?
Make it a grand center.

Make it a center, you know?
Make it a grand center.
Under David's plan,

Make it a grand center.
Under David's plan,
virtually no aspect of the old

Under David's plan,
virtually no aspect of the old
port district would remain

virtually no aspect of the old
port district would remain
unchanged.

Port district would remain
unchanged.
The fringe of aging "finger

unchanged.
The fringe of aging "finger
piers" that had lined the edge

The fringe of aging "finger
piers" that had lined the edge
of the island for a century

piers" that had lined the edge
of the island for a century
would be demolished to make way

of the island for a century
would be demolished to make way
for new residential and

would be demolished to make way
for new residential and
recreational development.

For new residential and
recreational development.
The ancient narrow streets,

recreational development.
The ancient narrow streets,
first laid down by the Dutch and

The ancient narrow streets,
first laid down by the Dutch and
the English, would be widened to

first laid down by the Dutch and
the English, would be widened to
accommodate the flow of modern

the English, would be widened to
accommodate the flow of modern
traffic.

Accommodate the flow of modern
traffic.
Hundreds of blocks along the

traffic.
Hundreds of blocks along the
East and Hudson rivers would be

Hundreds of blocks along the
East and Hudson rivers would be
wiped clean and consolidated to

East and Hudson rivers would be
wiped clean and consolidated to
make way for gleaming new office

wiped clean and consolidated to
make way for gleaming new office
buildings that would house the

make way for gleaming new office
buildings that would house the
vastly expanded white-collar

buildings that would house the
vastly expanded white-collar
services the new global economy

vastly expanded white-collar
services the new global economy
required.

Services the new global economy
required.
At the center of it all, the

required.
At the center of it all, the
anchor and emblem of the entire

At the center of it all, the
anchor and emblem of the entire
560-block redevelopment program,

anchor and emblem of the entire
560-block redevelopment program,
would rise an updated version of

560-block redevelopment program,
would rise an updated version of
the idea first floated by David

would rise an updated version of
the idea first floated by David
Rockefeller's uncle 15 years

the idea first floated by David
Rockefeller's uncle 15 years
earlier, an idea that in the

Rockefeller's uncle 15 years
earlier, an idea that in the
months and years to come would

earlier, an idea that in the
months and years to come would
become David's most burning

months and years to come would
become David's most burning
ambition: the World Trade

become David's most burning
ambition: the World Trade
Center.

Ambition: the World Trade
Center.
I think that David

Center.
I think that David
Rockefeller was masterful in his

I think that David
Rockefeller was masterful in his
introduction of the World Trade

Rockefeller was masterful in his
introduction of the World Trade
Center idea, and that idea was

introduction of the World Trade
Center idea, and that idea was
considered brilliant.

Center idea, and that idea was
considered brilliant.
He was called the billion-dollar

considered brilliant.
He was called the billion-dollar
planner by the "New York Times."

He was called the billion-dollar
planner by the "New York Times."
Mayor Wagner said it was

planner by the "New York Times."
Mayor Wagner said it was
wonderful.

Mayor Wagner said it was
wonderful.
He, as all Rockefellers, knew

wonderful.
He, as all Rockefellers, knew
how to build a power base, and

He, as all Rockefellers, knew
how to build a power base, and
how to create momentum even

how to build a power base, and
how to create momentum even
before he released the idea to

how to create momentum even
before he released the idea to
the public, and he did that.

Before he released the idea to
the public, and he did that.
And so I think, although he only

the public, and he did that.
And so I think, although he only
really proposed it, the fact

And so I think, although he only
really proposed it, the fact
that he proposed it really is

really proposed it, the fact
that he proposed it really is
why the World Trade Center was

that he proposed it really is
why the World Trade Center was
built.

Why the World Trade Center was
built.
Rising from a site

built.
Rising from a site
originally located not on the

Rising from a site
originally located not on the
west side of Manhattan, but on

originally located not on the
west side of Manhattan, but on
the east, and dominated in the

west side of Manhattan, but on
the east, and dominated in the
original drawings by a single

the east, and dominated in the
original drawings by a single
60-story tower, the sprawling

original drawings by a single
60-story tower, the sprawling
13-acre complex would, like

60-story tower, the sprawling
13-acre complex would, like
Rockefeller Center and the

13-acre complex would, like
Rockefeller Center and the
United Nations before it, be an

Rockefeller Center and the
United Nations before it, be an
example of what David called

United Nations before it, be an
example of what David called
"catalytic bigness," a project

example of what David called
"catalytic bigness," a project
whose sheer size and impact

"catalytic bigness," a project
whose sheer size and impact
would be large enough to provide

whose sheer size and impact
would be large enough to provide
the stimulus for further

would be large enough to provide
the stimulus for further
redevelopment.

The stimulus for further
redevelopment.
That very scale, of course, as

redevelopment.
That very scale, of course, as
David had known from the start,

That very scale, of course, as
David had known from the start,
also placed it far beyond the

David had known from the start,
also placed it far beyond the
reach of even the most ambitious

also placed it far beyond the
reach of even the most ambitious
of private developers, none of

reach of even the most ambitious
of private developers, none of
whom had the power or resources

of private developers, none of
whom had the power or resources
to take on so vast a project.

Whom had the power or resources
to take on so vast a project.
How are you going to

to take on so vast a project.
How are you going to
do this?

How are you going to
do this?
Well, the fact of the matter is,

do this?
Well, the fact of the matter is,
you have to bring in the state,

Well, the fact of the matter is,
you have to bring in the state,
because another thing

you have to bring in the state,
because another thing
Rockefellers are accustomed to

because another thing
Rockefellers are accustomed to
doing is for all the talk about

Rockefellers are accustomed to
doing is for all the talk about
the free market and getting

doing is for all the talk about
the free market and getting
government off our back that

the free market and getting
government off our back that
characterizes those small

government off our back that
characterizes those small
businessmen, the big people, in

characterizes those small
businessmen, the big people, in
fact, understand that subsidies

businessmen, the big people, in
fact, understand that subsidies
and government support are

fact, understand that subsidies
and government support are
pretty... a crucial part of the

and government support are
pretty... a crucial part of the
story.

Pretty... a crucial part of the
story.
So he needs a partner that is,

story.
So he needs a partner that is,
in fact, a heavyweight, and he

So he needs a partner that is,
in fact, a heavyweight, and he
puts together a concerted

in fact, a heavyweight, and he
puts together a concerted
program to bring in the one

puts together a concerted
program to bring in the one
agency which might be able to

program to bring in the one
agency which might be able to
commit public moneys, and to

agency which might be able to
commit public moneys, and to
have the power of eminent domain

commit public moneys, and to
have the power of eminent domain
that could clear away competing

have the power of eminent domain
that could clear away competing
uses and provide the funds to

that could clear away competing
uses and provide the funds to
construct new uses that are

uses and provide the funds to
construct new uses that are
compatible with this office

construct new uses that are
compatible with this office
vision.

Compatible with this office
vision.
And that's the Port Authority of

vision.
And that's the Port Authority of
New York and New Jersey.

And that's the Port Authority of
New York and New Jersey.
For much of the 20th

New York and New Jersey.
For much of the 20th
century, the ebb and flow of

For much of the 20th
century, the ebb and flow of
people and things in and out of

century, the ebb and flow of
people and things in and out of
the port of New York had been

people and things in and out of
the port of New York had been
shaped and controlled by an

the port of New York had been
shaped and controlled by an
immensely powerful but

shaped and controlled by an
immensely powerful but
relatively little known bi-state

immensely powerful but
relatively little known bi-state
agency called the Port Authority

relatively little known bi-state
agency called the Port Authority
of New York and New Jersey,

agency called the Port Authority
of New York and New Jersey,
which in its 40-year history had

of New York and New Jersey,
which in its 40-year history had
built or expanded every bridge

which in its 40-year history had
built or expanded every bridge
and tunnel along the Hudson

built or expanded every bridge
and tunnel along the Hudson
River, every airport in the

and tunnel along the Hudson
River, every airport in the
metropolitan region, the massive

River, every airport in the
metropolitan region, the massive
new bus terminal on the west

metropolitan region, the massive
new bus terminal on the west
side of Manhattan, and the

new bus terminal on the west
side of Manhattan, and the
world's first cargo container

side of Manhattan, and the
world's first cargo container
ports on the New Jersey side of

world's first cargo container
ports on the New Jersey side of
the harbor.

Ports on the New Jersey side of
the harbor.
In the years to come, under the

the harbor.
In the years to come, under the
leadership of its shrewd,

In the years to come, under the
leadership of its shrewd,
publicity-shy director, Austin

leadership of its shrewd,
publicity-shy director, Austin
Tobin, the authority would

publicity-shy director, Austin
Tobin, the authority would
invest its power, prestige, and

Tobin, the authority would
invest its power, prestige, and
immense institutional pride in

invest its power, prestige, and
immense institutional pride in
the ambitious project David

immense institutional pride in
the ambitious project David
Rockefeller had initiated, and

the ambitious project David
Rockefeller had initiated, and
soon find itself embroiled in

Rockefeller had initiated, and
soon find itself embroiled in
the most challenging,

soon find itself embroiled in
the most challenging,
controversial, and poignantly

the most challenging,
controversial, and poignantly
star-crossed project of its

controversial, and poignantly
star-crossed project of its
entire history.

Star-crossed project of its
entire history.
Of

entire history.
Of
course, the Port Authority's a

Of
course, the Port Authority's a
very strange organization.

Course, the Port Authority's a
very strange organization.
It's a hybrid.

Very strange organization.
It's a hybrid.
It's half-private, half-public

It's a hybrid.
It's half-private, half-public
in the way it operates and the

It's half-private, half-public
in the way it operates and the
way it thinks.

In the way it operates and the
way it thinks.
It's enormously powerful.

Way it thinks.
It's enormously powerful.
It has, you know, to overstate

It's enormously powerful.
It has, you know, to overstate
it somewhat, its own army.

It has, you know, to overstate
it somewhat, its own army.
It has the Port Authority Police

it somewhat, its own army.
It has the Port Authority Police
Department.

It has the Port Authority Police
Department.
It has public authority.

Department.
It has public authority.
It is also... has been very

It has public authority.
It is also... has been very
wealthy.

It is also... has been very
wealthy.
The Port

wealthy.
The Port
Authority was run by Austin

The Port
Authority was run by Austin
Tobin, who was a builder and

Authority was run by Austin
Tobin, who was a builder and
planner who, I think, actually

Tobin, who was a builder and
planner who, I think, actually
was better than Robert Moses at

planner who, I think, actually
was better than Robert Moses at
getting his will.

Was better than Robert Moses at
getting his will.
He wasn't as famous as Moses,

getting his will.
He wasn't as famous as Moses,
because he operated a little

He wasn't as famous as Moses,
because he operated a little
more under the radar.

Because he operated a little
more under the radar.
Moses was too passionate about

more under the radar.
Moses was too passionate about
being in front of people and

Moses was too passionate about
being in front of people and
having fights with them, and

being in front of people and
having fights with them, and
therefore he lost from time to

having fights with them, and
therefore he lost from time to
time.

Therefore he lost from time to
time.
Tobin just very quietly, behind

time.
Tobin just very quietly, behind
the scenes, manipulated and

Tobin just very quietly, behind
the scenes, manipulated and
maneuvered and got things done,

the scenes, manipulated and
maneuvered and got things done,
and got everything he ever

maneuvered and got things done,
and got everything he ever
wanted.

And got everything he ever
wanted.
He identified

wanted.
He identified
absolutely with the Port of New

He identified
absolutely with the Port of New
York Authority.

Absolutely with the Port of New
York Authority.
He'd started off basically as a

York Authority.
He'd started off basically as a
legal clerk back in the 1920s.

He'd started off basically as a
legal clerk back in the 1920s.
He'd grown up with this agency,

legal clerk back in the 1920s.
He'd grown up with this agency,
and I think he saw this the

He'd grown up with this agency,
and I think he saw this the
apotheosis of his career.

And I think he saw this the
apotheosis of his career.
And he saw it as something that

apotheosis of his career.
And he saw it as something that
could represent what he believed

And he saw it as something that
could represent what he believed
was the greatness of the Port

could represent what he believed
was the greatness of the Port
Authority.

Was the greatness of the Port
Authority.
The trouble is that

Authority.
The trouble is that
the mandate for the Port

The trouble is that
the mandate for the Port
Authority is trade... is to

the mandate for the Port
Authority is trade... is to
further international trade in

Authority is trade... is to
further international trade in
the harbor of New York City.

Further international trade in
the harbor of New York City.
And what David wants them to do,

the harbor of New York City.
And what David wants them to do,
really, is to get into office

And what David wants them to do,
really, is to get into office
building, and to make this a

really, is to get into office
building, and to make this a
financial and real estate

building, and to make this a
financial and real estate
center.

Financial and real estate
center.
The Port Authority

center.
The Port Authority
was never founded to go into the

The Port Authority
was never founded to go into the
real estate business, but it's

was never founded to go into the
real estate business, but it's
the most profitable business in

real estate business, but it's
the most profitable business in
New York.

The most profitable business in
New York.
And they saw great profits and

New York.
And they saw great profits and
ways of supporting their

And they saw great profits and
ways of supporting their
projects, which, up to a certain

ways of supporting their
projects, which, up to a certain
point, you could understand,

projects, which, up to a certain
point, you could understand,
although I think they should

point, you could understand,
although I think they should
have not gone into the real

although I think they should
have not gone into the real
estate business to begin with.

The questionable fit
between the Port Authority's
mandate and David Rockefeller's

between the Port Authority's
mandate and David Rockefeller's
plan would haunt the project for

mandate and David Rockefeller's
plan would haunt the project for
years to come.

Plan would haunt the project for
years to come.
As fate would have it, however,

years to come.
As fate would have it, however,
David Rockefeller himself would

As fate would have it, however,
David Rockefeller himself would
soon be in a position to

David Rockefeller himself would
soon be in a position to
overcome any initial opposition

soon be in a position to
overcome any initial opposition
to its involvement, at least

overcome any initial opposition
to its involvement, at least
within the agency itself.

To its involvement, at least
within the agency itself.
On January 1, 1959, his older

within the agency itself.
On January 1, 1959, his older
brother Nelson was sworn in as

On January 1, 1959, his older
brother Nelson was sworn in as
Governor of New York state, and

brother Nelson was sworn in as
Governor of New York state, and
almost immediately began filling

Governor of New York state, and
almost immediately began filling
the Port Authority's board with

almost immediately began filling
the Port Authority's board with
his own appointees: senior Wall

the Port Authority's board with
his own appointees: senior Wall
Street executives who could be

his own appointees: senior Wall
Street executives who could be
counted on to share his

Street executives who could be
counted on to share his
brother's vision of lower

counted on to share his
brother's vision of lower
Manhattan's white-collar future.

Brother's vision of lower
Manhattan's white-collar future.
Nelson Rockefeller,

Manhattan's white-collar future.
Nelson Rockefeller,
of course, was hugely important

Nelson Rockefeller,
of course, was hugely important
in the Port Authority becoming

of course, was hugely important
in the Port Authority becoming
the client and the patron of

in the Port Authority becoming
the client and the patron of
the World Trade Center.

The client and the patron of
the World Trade Center.
One needed the endorsement of

the World Trade Center.
One needed the endorsement of
both states, but of course New

One needed the endorsement of
both states, but of course New
York was the most powerful of

both states, but of course New
York was the most powerful of
the partners of the bi-state

York was the most powerful of
the partners of the bi-state
agency.

The partners of the bi-state
agency.
Nelson

agency.
Nelson
Rockefeller was a great and

Nelson
Rockefeller was a great and
passionate builder.

Rockefeller was a great and
passionate builder.
His greatest legacy was building

passionate builder.
His greatest legacy was building
stuff all over the place, in

His greatest legacy was building
stuff all over the place, in
Albany and elsewhere.

Stuff all over the place, in
Albany and elsewhere.
And he latched onto the Trade

Albany and elsewhere.
And he latched onto the Trade
Center as a great project.

And he latched onto the Trade
Center as a great project.
It was felt that the Port

Center as a great project.
It was felt that the Port
Authority was the agency with

It was felt that the Port
Authority was the agency with
the wherewithal to actually get

Authority was the agency with
the wherewithal to actually get
it built, both because it had

the wherewithal to actually get
it built, both because it had
experience in building large and

it built, both because it had
experience in building large and
complicated projects, and

experience in building large and
complicated projects, and
because it had enormous bonding

complicated projects, and
because it had enormous bonding
power and could finance this

because it had enormous bonding
power and could finance this
project without anything showing

power and could finance this
project without anything showing
up on the state budget, so it

project without anything showing
up on the state budget, so it
made it a real win-win for

up on the state budget, so it
made it a real win-win for
Rockefeller.

Made it a real win-win for
Rockefeller.
In the spring of

Rockefeller.
In the spring of
1960, as questions about the

In the spring of
1960, as questions about the
propriety of the Port

1960, as questions about the
propriety of the Port
Authority's involvement began to

propriety of the Port
Authority's involvement began to
fade away, Austin Tobin, at

Authority's involvement began to
fade away, Austin Tobin, at
David Rockefeller's request,

fade away, Austin Tobin, at
David Rockefeller's request,
instructed his staff to prepare

David Rockefeller's request,
instructed his staff to prepare
preliminary drawings for a five-

instructed his staff to prepare
preliminary drawings for a five-
million-square-foot complex

preliminary drawings for a five-
million-square-foot complex
along the East River.

Million-square-foot complex
along the East River.
Using the immense reserves of

along the East River.
Using the immense reserves of
public and private power at

Using the immense reserves of
public and private power at
their command, the Rockefeller

public and private power at
their command, the Rockefeller
brothers had managed to make a

their command, the Rockefeller
brothers had managed to make a
half-billion-dollar real estate

brothers had managed to make a
half-billion-dollar real estate
gamble seem not only plausible,

half-billion-dollar real estate
gamble seem not only plausible,
but inevitable.

Gamble seem not only plausible,
but inevitable.
There was a big

but inevitable.
There was a big
fallacy, though, in this whole

There was a big
fallacy, though, in this whole
project.

Fallacy, though, in this whole
project.
The real problem with lower

project.
The real problem with lower
Manhattan was not that it didn't

The real problem with lower
Manhattan was not that it didn't
have enough office space.

Manhattan was not that it didn't
have enough office space.
The problem was that it was hard

have enough office space.
The problem was that it was hard
to get to, particularly from the

The problem was that it was hard
to get to, particularly from the
suburbs, where a lot of business

to get to, particularly from the
suburbs, where a lot of business
executives and bankers lived,

suburbs, where a lot of business
executives and bankers lived,
and it was not a particularly

executives and bankers lived,
and it was not a particularly
appealing neighborhood in a

and it was not a particularly
appealing neighborhood in a
general way, in that there were

appealing neighborhood in a
general way, in that there were
no places to eat, few places to

general way, in that there were
no places to eat, few places to
shop, no cultural facilities to

no places to eat, few places to
shop, no cultural facilities to
speak of, no places to live.

Shop, no cultural facilities to
speak of, no places to live.
All the things that make a

speak of, no places to live.
All the things that make a
neighborhood interesting and

All the things that make a
neighborhood interesting and
varied and meaningful as a part

neighborhood interesting and
varied and meaningful as a part
of the city weren't there.

Varied and meaningful as a part
of the city weren't there.
And so the World Trade Center

of the city weren't there.
And so the World Trade Center
violated the first law of

And so the World Trade Center
violated the first law of
economics, really.

Violated the first law of
economics, really.
It added to the supply of what

economics, really.
It added to the supply of what
there was already too much of,

It added to the supply of what
there was already too much of,
which was office space, without,

there was already too much of,
which was office space, without,
in fact, doing anything to

which was office space, without,
in fact, doing anything to
change the demand.

In fact, doing anything to
change the demand.
So it was wrong from its

change the demand.
So it was wrong from its
conception, but nobody quite got

So it was wrong from its
conception, but nobody quite got
that.

To me,
it was a sense of building,
creating something that's almost

it was a sense of building,
creating something that's almost
at the limit of what human

creating something that's almost
at the limit of what human
beings can create, you know.

At the limit of what human
beings can create, you know.
I like that raw power.

Beings can create, you know.
I like that raw power.
I like that sort of feeling that

I like that raw power.
I like that sort of feeling that
they were our Godzilla, you

I like that sort of feeling that
they were our Godzilla, you
know, that they stood up there,

they were our Godzilla, you
know, that they stood up there,
that they say, "So what?", you

know, that they stood up there,
that they say, "So what?", you
know... "We are ugly, so what?"

that they say, "So what?", you
know... "We are ugly, so what?"
And they weren't, you know,

know... "We are ugly, so what?"
And they weren't, you know,
because they were one thing one

And they weren't, you know,
because they were one thing one
minute and they were another

because they were one thing one
minute and they were another
thing the other minute.

Minute and they were another
thing the other minute.
You know, so you couldn't pass a

thing the other minute.
You know, so you couldn't pass a
judgment on them.

You know, so you couldn't pass a
judgment on them.
You know, those who would

judgment on them.
You know, those who would
condemn them on an aesthetic

You know, those who would
condemn them on an aesthetic
basis, you know, were absolutely

condemn them on an aesthetic
basis, you know, were absolutely
wrong, because it depended so

basis, you know, were absolutely
wrong, because it depended so
much on how close you were, how

wrong, because it depended so
much on how close you were, how
far you were from them, whether

much on how close you were, how
far you were from them, whether
you saw them in the late

far you were from them, whether
you saw them in the late
afternoon, whether you saw them

you saw them in the late
afternoon, whether you saw them
in the morning, whether you saw

afternoon, whether you saw them
in the morning, whether you saw
them in winter, whether you saw

in the morning, whether you saw
them in winter, whether you saw
them in summer.

Them in winter, whether you saw
them in summer.
So there was always a different

them in summer.
So there was always a different
feeling about them.

So there was always a different
feeling about them.
I think, at some deeper level,

feeling about them.
I think, at some deeper level,
there was the connection of the

I think, at some deeper level,
there was the connection of the
water to the sky.

There was the connection of the
water to the sky.
And I'm not very strong in

water to the sky.
And I'm not very strong in
mythology and all of this, but I

And I'm not very strong in
mythology and all of this, but I
think that played a very

mythology and all of this, but I
think that played a very
important role.

Think that played a very
important role.
Here you saw that somehow we're

important role.
Here you saw that somehow we're
connected to something not just

Here you saw that somehow we're
connected to something not just
larger than New York, but larger

connected to something not just
larger than New York, but larger
than the earth itself, you know.

The original
trade center was to be on the
East River, where the South

trade center was to be on the
East River, where the South
Street Seaport is, below the

East River, where the South
Street Seaport is, below the
Brooklyn Bridge.

Street Seaport is, below the
Brooklyn Bridge.
And it moved to the west side

Brooklyn Bridge.
And it moved to the west side
for a very funny reason.

And it moved to the west side
for a very funny reason.
The Port Authority is controlled

for a very funny reason.
The Port Authority is controlled
by the governors of New York and

The Port Authority is controlled
by the governors of New York and
New Jersey.

By the governors of New York and
New Jersey.
So Nelson Rockefeller, on his

New Jersey.
So Nelson Rockefeller, on his
own, could not simply decree

So Nelson Rockefeller, on his
own, could not simply decree
that the Port Authority would

own, could not simply decree
that the Port Authority would
build it.

That the Port Authority would
build it.
The governor of New Jersey had

build it.
The governor of New Jersey had
to go along.

The governor of New Jersey had
to go along.
The governor of New Jersey,

to go along.
The governor of New Jersey,
understandably enough, looked at

The governor of New Jersey,
understandably enough, looked at
this and said, "Well, what's in

understandably enough, looked at
this and said, "Well, what's in
it for me?"

this and said, "Well, what's in
it for me?"
After all, the

it for me?"
After all, the
Port Authority was a bi-state

After all, the
Port Authority was a bi-state
organization; therefore, half of

Port Authority was a bi-state
organization; therefore, half of
the benefits ought to come to

organization; therefore, half of
the benefits ought to come to
New Jersey.

The benefits ought to come to
New Jersey.
If you had this world trade

New Jersey.
If you had this world trade
center over on the other side of

If you had this world trade
center over on the other side of
Manhattan, facing Brooklyn and

center over on the other side of
Manhattan, facing Brooklyn and
Europe, it seemed unlikely that

Manhattan, facing Brooklyn and
Europe, it seemed unlikely that
that was going to be beneficial

Europe, it seemed unlikely that
that was going to be beneficial
to the state of New Jersey.

That was going to be beneficial
to the state of New Jersey.
And, in fact, it might draw both

to the state of New Jersey.
And, in fact, it might draw both
jobs and people away, so there

And, in fact, it might draw both
jobs and people away, so there
was a lot of resistance there.

Jobs and people away, so there
was a lot of resistance there.
Then the governor

was a lot of resistance there.
Then the governor
of New Jersey figured out what

Then the governor
of New Jersey figured out what
was in it for him.

Of New Jersey figured out what
was in it for him.
There was a commuter railroad,

was in it for him.
There was a commuter railroad,
the Hudson Tubes... it was called

There was a commuter railroad,
the Hudson Tubes... it was called
the Hudson & Manhattan

the Hudson Tubes... it was called
the Hudson & Manhattan
Railroad... that ran under the

the Hudson & Manhattan
Railroad... that ran under the
river to a terminal in lower

Railroad... that ran under the
river to a terminal in lower
Manhattan, and it was in

river to a terminal in lower
Manhattan, and it was in
terrible shape.

Manhattan, and it was in
terrible shape.
It was going bankrupt.

Terrible shape.
It was going bankrupt.
And there was huge pressure on

It was going bankrupt.
And there was huge pressure on
the state of New Jersey to take

And there was huge pressure on
the state of New Jersey to take
it over and bail it out.

The state of New Jersey to take
it over and bail it out.
Well, the governor didn't want

it over and bail it out.
Well, the governor didn't want
the money for that on his budget

Well, the governor didn't want
the money for that on his budget
particularly, but politically,

the money for that on his budget
particularly, but politically,
he had to do something.

Particularly, but politically,
he had to do something.
So he said if the Port Authority

he had to do something.
So he said if the Port Authority
would take over the railroad, he

So he said if the Port Authority
would take over the railroad, he
would agree to building the

would take over the railroad, he
would agree to building the
World Trade Center.

Would agree to building the
World Trade Center.
That was acceptable in

World Trade Center.
That was acceptable in
New Jersey, but in New York,

That was acceptable in
New Jersey, but in New York,
there was some doubt that funds

New Jersey, but in New York,
there was some doubt that funds
for the Port Authority should be

there was some doubt that funds
for the Port Authority should be
put into helping New Jersey

for the Port Authority should be
put into helping New Jersey
commuters come to New York for

put into helping New Jersey
commuters come to New York for
jobs.

Commuters come to New York for
jobs.
And, therefore, Albany refused

jobs.
And, therefore, Albany refused
to agree to approve the takeover

And, therefore, Albany refused
to agree to approve the takeover
of the H&M.

To agree to approve the takeover
of the H&M.
New Jersey then dug in its

of the H&M.
New Jersey then dug in its
heels, and the question was,

New Jersey then dug in its
heels, and the question was,
what could possibly be done?

Heels, and the question was,
what could possibly be done?
And at this point, there seemed

what could possibly be done?
And at this point, there seemed
to be some doubt that the World

And at this point, there seemed
to be some doubt that the World
Trade Center idea could go

to be some doubt that the World
Trade Center idea could go
forward.

Trade Center idea could go
forward.
Then, someone at the port

forward.
Then, someone at the port
authority realized that the

Then, someone at the port
authority realized that the
Hudson Tubes came with some real

authority realized that the
Hudson Tubes came with some real
estate; came with a big, rather

Hudson Tubes came with some real
estate; came with a big, rather
decrepit pair of office

estate; came with a big, rather
decrepit pair of office
buildings in lower Manhattan

decrepit pair of office
buildings in lower Manhattan
that had been built over its

buildings in lower Manhattan
that had been built over its
terminus on Church Street.

That had been built over its
terminus on Church Street.
They were called the Hudson and

terminus on Church Street.
They were called the Hudson and
Manhattan Terminal Buildings.

They were called the Hudson and
Manhattan Terminal Buildings.
And so, the Port Authority

Manhattan Terminal Buildings.
And so, the Port Authority
looked around at these buildings

And so, the Port Authority
looked around at these buildings
that were not in very good

looked around at these buildings
that were not in very good
shape, that they really didn't

that were not in very good
shape, that they really didn't
want to have, and said, "Why do

shape, that they really didn't
want to have, and said, "Why do
we have these things here?

Want to have, and said, "Why do
we have these things here?
Why don't we put the trade

we have these things here?
Why don't we put the trade
center here, now that we have

Why don't we put the trade
center here, now that we have
got this real estate, rather

center here, now that we have
got this real estate, rather
than on the East River?"

got this real estate, rather
than on the East River?"
And that idea was then

than on the East River?"
And that idea was then
proposed, and it seemed

And that idea was then
proposed, and it seemed
dramatically to meet all sort of

proposed, and it seemed
dramatically to meet all sort of
objections.

Dramatically to meet all sort of
objections.
Nelson Rockefeller and the New

objections.
Nelson Rockefeller and the New
York State side would get its

Nelson Rockefeller and the New
York State side would get its
World Trade Center.

York State side would get its
World Trade Center.
It would be built right on top

World Trade Center.
It would be built right on top
of a major set of subway lines

It would be built right on top
of a major set of subway lines
in New York so that folks from

of a major set of subway lines
in New York so that folks from
all over New York and Brooklyn

in New York so that folks from
all over New York and Brooklyn
could get to the World Trade

all over New York and Brooklyn
could get to the World Trade
Center.

Could get to the World Trade
Center.
In addition, it would be built

Center.
In addition, it would be built
right over PATH, which the Port

In addition, it would be built
right over PATH, which the Port
Authority would take over.

Right over PATH, which the Port
Authority would take over.
And that then meant New

Authority would take over.
And that then meant New
Jerseyites could get there for

And that then meant New
Jerseyites could get there for
jobs or any other kinds of

Jerseyites could get there for
jobs or any other kinds of
activities.

Jobs or any other kinds of
activities.
That was then rapidly approved

activities.
That was then rapidly approved
in 1962, both in New Jersey and

That was then rapidly approved
in 1962, both in New Jersey and
in New York.

In 1962, both in New Jersey and
in New York.
And that's how

in New York.
And that's how
the Trade Center ended up where

And that's how
the Trade Center ended up where
it was, as the result of a

the Trade Center ended up where
it was, as the result of a
political deal.

It was, as the result of a
political deal.
In the winter of

political deal.
In the winter of
1962, after more than a decade

In the winter of
1962, after more than a decade
and a half of false starts and

1962, after more than a decade
and a half of false starts and
delays, the World Trade Center

and a half of false starts and
delays, the World Trade Center
project at last seemed to be

delays, the World Trade Center
project at last seemed to be
getting under way, having

project at last seemed to be
getting under way, having
finally found a home for itself

getting under way, having
finally found a home for itself
on the West Side of Manhattan.

Finally found a home for itself
on the West Side of Manhattan.
No one, however, had yet said

on the West Side of Manhattan.
No one, however, had yet said
anything about building the

No one, however, had yet said
anything about building the
tallest buildings in the world.

When the World
Trade Center was conceived, the
intention was not to build the

Trade Center was conceived, the
intention was not to build the
world's tallest buildings.

Intention was not to build the
world's tallest buildings.
In fact, the preliminary designs

world's tallest buildings.
In fact, the preliminary designs
on the East Side were 60 or 70

In fact, the preliminary designs
on the East Side were 60 or 70
stories.

On the East Side were 60 or 70
stories.
The first studies on the West

stories.
The first studies on the West
Side were that.

The first studies on the West
Side were that.
And then this sort of hubris, I

Side were that.
And then this sort of hubris, I
think, took over, and it just

And then this sort of hubris, I
think, took over, and it just
kept getting bigger and bigger,

think, took over, and it just
kept getting bigger and bigger,
and they kept thinking they

kept getting bigger and bigger,
and they kept thinking they
could do anything, and nobody

and they kept thinking they
could do anything, and nobody
said, "No."

could do anything, and nobody
said, "No."
I think the combination of David

said, "No."
I think the combination of David
Rockefeller's passionate desire

I think the combination of David
Rockefeller's passionate desire
to put Lower Manhattan back on

Rockefeller's passionate desire
to put Lower Manhattan back on
the map in a central way, in a

to put Lower Manhattan back on
the map in a central way, in a
really important way... the

the map in a central way, in a
really important way... the
governor, his brother's desire

really important way... the
governor, his brother's desire
to just build bigger and bigger

governor, his brother's desire
to just build bigger and bigger
all the time anywhere, and the

to just build bigger and bigger
all the time anywhere, and the
Port Authority's desire to

all the time anywhere, and the
Port Authority's desire to
really be the preeminent

Port Authority's desire to
really be the preeminent
powerful civic authority in the

really be the preeminent
powerful civic authority in the
world, let alone in New York...

Powerful civic authority in the
world, let alone in New York...
all those things kind of

world, let alone in New York...
all those things kind of
combined.

All those things kind of
combined.
And as they sort of drifted to

combined.
And as they sort of drifted to
the West Side site from an

And as they sort of drifted to
the West Side site from an
original plan on the East Side,

the West Side site from an
original plan on the East Side,
it kind of drifted into being

original plan on the East Side,
it kind of drifted into being
the world's tallest buildings.

At 6:30 P.M., on the
evening of February 13, 1962,
the newly elected governor of

evening of February 13, 1962,
the newly elected governor of
New Jersey, Richard Hughes,

the newly elected governor of
New Jersey, Richard Hughes,
signed into law the historic

New Jersey, Richard Hughes,
signed into law the historic
Hudson Tubes-World Trade Center

signed into law the historic
Hudson Tubes-World Trade Center
bill.

Hudson Tubes-World Trade Center
bill.
Three weeks later, Governor

bill.
Three weeks later, Governor
Nelson Rockefeller followed

Three weeks later, Governor
Nelson Rockefeller followed
suit.

Nelson Rockefeller followed
suit.
But by then, Austin Tobin had

suit.
But by then, Austin Tobin had
already set in motion the

But by then, Austin Tobin had
already set in motion the
elaborate machinery of his 6,000

already set in motion the
elaborate machinery of his 6,000
person agency, creating a new

elaborate machinery of his 6,000
person agency, creating a new
division within the Port

person agency, creating a new
division within the Port
Authority empire, called the

division within the Port
Authority empire, called the
World Trade Office; then

Authority empire, called the
World Trade Office; then
appointing a tireless,

World Trade Office; then
appointing a tireless,
unswervingly loyal 32-year-old

appointing a tireless,
unswervingly loyal 32-year-old
engineer named Guy Tozzoli, to

unswervingly loyal 32-year-old
engineer named Guy Tozzoli, to
oversee every aspect of the

engineer named Guy Tozzoli, to
oversee every aspect of the
massive operation.

Oversee every aspect of the
massive operation.
"You can pick the best of the

massive operation.
"You can pick the best of the
Port Authority," Tobin told his

"You can pick the best of the
Port Authority," Tobin told his
eager young director, "because

Port Authority," Tobin told his
eager young director, "because
this is going to be our greatest

eager young director, "because
this is going to be our greatest
project."

this is going to be our greatest
project."
I was given the job

project."
I was given the job
in February of 1962 to plan, to

I was given the job
in February of 1962 to plan, to
design, to construct, to operate

in February of 1962 to plan, to
design, to construct, to operate
the World Trade Center of New

design, to construct, to operate
the World Trade Center of New
York.

The World Trade Center of New
York.
And there was only one thing.

York.
And there was only one thing.
To achieve what David

And there was only one thing.
To achieve what David
Rockefeller and Nelson

To achieve what David
Rockefeller and Nelson
Rockefeller wanted the Port

Rockefeller and Nelson
Rockefeller wanted the Port
Authority to do, I recommended

Rockefeller wanted the Port
Authority to do, I recommended
to the board you could only do

Authority to do, I recommended
to the board you could only do
one thing: you had to build what

to the board you could only do
one thing: you had to build what
the Reader's Digest called "the

one thing: you had to build what
the Reader's Digest called "the
largest building project since

the Reader's Digest called "the
largest building project since
the Egyptian pyramids."

largest building project since
the Egyptian pyramids."
There was no other way in this

the Egyptian pyramids."
There was no other way in this
city, because this was the

There was no other way in this
city, because this was the
greatest city in the world.

City, because this was the
greatest city in the world.
And it had to be something that

greatest city in the world.
And it had to be something that
people would pay attention to.

And it had to be something that
people would pay attention to.
Second thing we had to consider

people would pay attention to.
Second thing we had to consider
was, it had to be affordable.

Second thing we had to consider
was, it had to be affordable.
So when they gave me the job,

was, it had to be affordable.
So when they gave me the job,
they said, "By the way, it has

So when they gave me the job,
they said, "By the way, it has
to be self-supporting.

They said, "By the way, it has
to be self-supporting.
So we're going to capitalize

to be self-supporting.
So we're going to capitalize
every paper clip that you use."

So we're going to capitalize
every paper clip that you use."

every paper clip that you use."
So I had hanging over me like

So I had hanging over me like
the sword of Damocles, that

So I had hanging over me like
the sword of Damocles, that
said, "You will make this thing

the sword of Damocles, that
said, "You will make this thing
work."

said, "You will make this thing
work."
The risks involved

work."
The risks involved
were enormous from the start, as

The risks involved
were enormous from the start, as
were the challenges, many of

were enormous from the start, as
were the challenges, many of
which grew from the competing

were the challenges, many of
which grew from the competing
imperatives of the project

which grew from the competing
imperatives of the project
itself.

Imperatives of the project
itself.
The same charter that required

itself.
The same charter that required
the complex to turn a profit

The same charter that required
the complex to turn a profit
dramatically restricted the

the complex to turn a profit
dramatically restricted the
range of its potential tenants,

dramatically restricted the
range of its potential tenants,
three-quarters of whom would

range of its potential tenants,
three-quarters of whom would
have to be directly involved in

three-quarters of whom would
have to be directly involved in
world trade to satisfy the Port

have to be directly involved in
world trade to satisfy the Port
Authority's mandate.

World trade to satisfy the Port
Authority's mandate.
When studies showed that demand

Authority's mandate.
When studies showed that demand
for such space would be modest

When studies showed that demand
for such space would be modest
at best, Tobin instructed

for such space would be modest
at best, Tobin instructed
Tozzoli to increase the

at best, Tobin instructed
Tozzoli to increase the
building's program anyway...

Tozzoli to increase the
building's program anyway...
dramatically... to an almost

building's program anyway...
dramatically... to an almost
unheard total of ten million

dramatically... to an almost
unheard total of ten million
square feet, nearly five times

unheard total of ten million
square feet, nearly five times
the floor space of the Empire

square feet, nearly five times
the floor space of the Empire
State Building.

The floor space of the Empire
State Building.
They knew that it was

State Building.
They knew that it was
going to fail.

They knew that it was
going to fail.
They were told that this was

going to fail.
They were told that this was
going to fail, unless it was

They were told that this was
going to fail, unless it was
enormous.

Going to fail, unless it was
enormous.
They knew that lower Manhattan

enormous.
They knew that lower Manhattan
was not going to come up again

They knew that lower Manhattan
was not going to come up again
unless they did something so

was not going to come up again
unless they did something so
bold and outrageous that the

unless they did something so
bold and outrageous that the
people of midtown, you know,

bold and outrageous that the
people of midtown, you know,
couldn't ignore them.

People of midtown, you know,
couldn't ignore them.
And the Port Authority listened

couldn't ignore them.
And the Port Authority listened
to that, and they went with it,

And the Port Authority listened
to that, and they went with it,
and they built the biggest

to that, and they went with it,
and they built the biggest
buildings in the world, because

and they built the biggest
buildings in the world, because
they knew that they had to do

buildings in the world, because
they knew that they had to do
that or else it was going to be

they knew that they had to do
that or else it was going to be
a lost investment.

That or else it was going to be
a lost investment.
Austin Tobin's vision

a lost investment.
Austin Tobin's vision
of the project had just begun to

Austin Tobin's vision
of the project had just begun to
expand when the Port Authority's

of the project had just begun to
expand when the Port Authority's
shrewd 42-year-old public

expand when the Port Authority's
shrewd 42-year-old public
relations director distributed a

shrewd 42-year-old public
relations director distributed a
fateful internal memo.

Relations director distributed a
fateful internal memo.
It said that the

fateful internal memo.
It said that the
person who was credited early on

It said that the
person who was credited early on
in the project for coming up

person who was credited early on
in the project for coming up
with the idea of the world's

in the project for coming up
with the idea of the world's
tallest building, came out of

with the idea of the world's
tallest building, came out of
the publicity department; that

tallest building, came out of
the publicity department; that
it was a woman named Lee Jaffe

the publicity department; that
it was a woman named Lee Jaffe
who sent a memo among the men

it was a woman named Lee Jaffe
who sent a memo among the men
who were in charge of the

who sent a memo among the men
who were in charge of the
project, saying, "Well, as long

who were in charge of the
project, saying, "Well, as long
as we're going to make them 100

project, saying, "Well, as long
as we're going to make them 100
stories, why not go that extra

as we're going to make them 100
stories, why not go that extra
few hundred feet and secure

stories, why not go that extra
few hundred feet and secure
their place as the world's

few hundred feet and secure
their place as the world's
tallest?"

their place as the world's
tallest?"
This will be a journey into

tallest?"
This will be a journey into
the cosmic unknown.

This will be a journey into
the cosmic unknown.
You know, America

the cosmic unknown.
You know, America
has always believed in bigness.

You know, America
has always believed in bigness.
And I think we particularly

has always believed in bigness.
And I think we particularly
believed in it in the '60s, when

And I think we particularly
believed in it in the '60s, when
the World Trade Center was

believed in it in the '60s, when
the World Trade Center was
conceived.

The World Trade Center was
conceived.
You know, bigger and bigger

conceived.
You know, bigger and bigger
American things, bigger and

You know, bigger and bigger
American things, bigger and
bigger doses of American power

American things, bigger and
bigger doses of American power
were going to solve anything.

Bigger doses of American power
were going to solve anything.
It was the age when all the cars

were going to solve anything.
It was the age when all the cars
were gargantuan and had fins.

It was the age when all the cars
were gargantuan and had fins.
It was the age when we were

were gargantuan and had fins.
It was the age when we were
sending troops into Vietnam, the

It was the age when we were
sending troops into Vietnam, the
age of going to the moon.

Sending troops into Vietnam, the
age of going to the moon.
Exactly.

Age of going to the moon.
Exactly.
And its architectural equivalent

Exactly.
And its architectural equivalent
was this notion of bigger and

And its architectural equivalent
was this notion of bigger and
bigger buildings all the time.

Was this notion of bigger and
bigger buildings all the time.
We've always also romanticized

bigger buildings all the time.
We've always also romanticized
height in a very wonderful way,

We've always also romanticized
height in a very wonderful way,
in New York.

Height in a very wonderful way,
in New York.
I mean, that's very much a part

in New York.
I mean, that's very much a part
of our DNA, is to just build

I mean, that's very much a part
of our DNA, is to just build
bigger and taller all the time.

Of our DNA, is to just build
bigger and taller all the time.
As word of the

bigger and taller all the time.
As word of the
Authority's vaulting ambitions

As word of the
Authority's vaulting ambitions
raced through the corridors of

Authority's vaulting ambitions
raced through the corridors of
the agency, a kind of fever

raced through the corridors of
the agency, a kind of fever
gripped the members of Austin

the agency, a kind of fever
gripped the members of Austin
Tobin's team.

Gripped the members of Austin
Tobin's team.
And so, first thing

Tobin's team.
And so, first thing
to do was to find the right

And so, first thing
to do was to find the right
architect.

To do was to find the right
architect.
What I wanted was a great

architect.
What I wanted was a great
architect.

What I wanted was a great
architect.
This had to be the greatest

architect.
This had to be the greatest
project in the world if it were

This had to be the greatest
project in the world if it were
to succeed.

Project in the world if it were
to succeed.
And we interviewed virtually

to succeed.
And we interviewed virtually
everybody in the world, of

And we interviewed virtually
everybody in the world, of
consequence.

Everybody in the world, of
consequence.
And to the teams that I sent out

consequence.
And to the teams that I sent out
to find out what architects did,

And to the teams that I sent out
to find out what architects did,
the first stipulation I gave

to find out what architects did,
the first stipulation I gave
them was, "Try to find somebody

the first stipulation I gave
them was, "Try to find somebody
who you think is young enough to

them was, "Try to find somebody
who you think is young enough to
live for 20 years," because I

who you think is young enough to
live for 20 years," because I
was sure that this project, as

live for 20 years," because I
was sure that this project, as
we conceived it, would take at

was sure that this project, as
we conceived it, would take at
least 20 years to finish.

We conceived it, would take at
least 20 years to finish.
And it actually took more than

least 20 years to finish.
And it actually took more than
that.

And it actually took more than
that.
In the end, passing

that.
In the end, passing
over the entire stable of elite

In the end, passing
over the entire stable of elite
architects in New York, Tozzoli

over the entire stable of elite
architects in New York, Tozzoli
settled on a relative outsider,

architects in New York, Tozzoli
settled on a relative outsider,
a complex 49-year-old Detroit-

settled on a relative outsider,
a complex 49-year-old Detroit-
based architect named Minoru

a complex 49-year-old Detroit-
based architect named Minoru
Yamasaki whose elegantly

based architect named Minoru
Yamasaki whose elegantly
ornamented structures were then

Yamasaki whose elegantly
ornamented structures were then
enjoying a kind of vogue, and

ornamented structures were then
enjoying a kind of vogue, and
whose design for the World Trade

enjoying a kind of vogue, and
whose design for the World Trade
Center would ultimately become

whose design for the World Trade
Center would ultimately become
one of the most controversial

Center would ultimately become
one of the most controversial
aspects of the entire project.

One of the most controversial
aspects of the entire project.
Yamasaki was a very

aspects of the entire project.
Yamasaki was a very
strange choice for the architect

Yamasaki was a very
strange choice for the architect
of the world's tallest

strange choice for the architect
of the world's tallest
buildings, because he had never

of the world's tallest
buildings, because he had never
been a commercial architect, and

buildings, because he had never
been a commercial architect, and
especially of skyscrapers or of

been a commercial architect, and
especially of skyscrapers or of
high-rises.

Especially of skyscrapers or of
high-rises.
His previous buildings had been

high-rises.
His previous buildings had been
mid-rises of 20 or so stories.

His previous buildings had been
mid-rises of 20 or so stories.
He was not one of those

mid-rises of 20 or so stories.
He was not one of those
architects who was particularly

He was not one of those
architects who was particularly
emphatic about a structural

architects who was particularly
emphatic about a structural
engineering solution.

Emphatic about a structural
engineering solution.
One thinks of his earlier work

engineering solution.
One thinks of his earlier work
more in a decorative vein.

One thinks of his earlier work
more in a decorative vein.
He was interested in the play of

more in a decorative vein.
He was interested in the play of
light and shadow on the surface

He was interested in the play of
light and shadow on the surface
of a building, so that his

light and shadow on the surface
of a building, so that his
previous buildings seemed almost

of a building, so that his
previous buildings seemed almost
delicate in scale and wholly out

previous buildings seemed almost
delicate in scale and wholly out
of proportion to the ambition of

delicate in scale and wholly out
of proportion to the ambition of
the commission of the Trade

of proportion to the ambition of
the commission of the Trade
Center.

The commission of the Trade
Center.
He felt that sort

Center.
He felt that sort
of standard-issue modern

He felt that sort
of standard-issue modern
architecture was harsh and

of standard-issue modern
architecture was harsh and
unwelcoming and cold.

Architecture was harsh and
unwelcoming and cold.
And he wanted to make

unwelcoming and cold.
And he wanted to make
architecture warm.

And he wanted to make
architecture warm.
So he kept doing these buildings

architecture warm.
So he kept doing these buildings
that were sort of delicate.

So he kept doing these buildings
that were sort of delicate.
A lot of his stuff had these

that were sort of delicate.
A lot of his stuff had these
funny little gothic arches, and

A lot of his stuff had these
funny little gothic arches, and
it looked kind of cute in a

funny little gothic arches, and
it looked kind of cute in a
weird way.

It looked kind of cute in a
weird way.
The Port Authority

weird way.
The Port Authority
thought, if we're going to

The Port Authority
thought, if we're going to
build, you know, such enormous

thought, if we're going to
build, you know, such enormous
buildings that if they could

build, you know, such enormous
buildings that if they could
hire someone who could combine

buildings that if they could
hire someone who could combine
the productive modern office

hire someone who could combine
the productive modern office
building with an ornamental

the productive modern office
building with an ornamental
touch, that that was what they

building with an ornamental
touch, that that was what they
wanted.

Touch, that that was what they
wanted.
They also wanted someone who was

wanted.
They also wanted someone who was
not so old and established and

They also wanted someone who was
not so old and established and
also set in his ways that they

not so old and established and
also set in his ways that they
couldn't, you know, twist his

also set in his ways that they
couldn't, you know, twist his
arm and get him to agree to do

couldn't, you know, twist his
arm and get him to agree to do
what they wanted to do.

Arm and get him to agree to do
what they wanted to do.
They wanted someone who was

what they wanted to do.
They wanted someone who was
creative, but they also wanted

They wanted someone who was
creative, but they also wanted
someone that was going to listen

creative, but they also wanted
someone that was going to listen
to Guy Tozzoli and to Austin

someone that was going to listen
to Guy Tozzoli and to Austin
Tobin.

To Guy Tozzoli and to Austin
Tobin.
And they got that in Minoru

Tobin.
And they got that in Minoru
Yamasaki.

And they got that in Minoru
Yamasaki.
They thought they

Yamasaki.
They thought they
were actually making kind of a

They thought they
were actually making kind of a
leap to a sort of high-art

were actually making kind of a
leap to a sort of high-art
architect.

Leap to a sort of high-art
architect.
Yamasaki was actually a kind of

architect.
Yamasaki was actually a kind of
low-end high-art architect.

Yamasaki was actually a kind of
low-end high-art architect.
He was not one of the more

low-end high-art architect.
He was not one of the more
admired ones by architectural

He was not one of the more
admired ones by architectural
historians and critics, but he

admired ones by architectural
historians and critics, but he
was nonetheless sort of

historians and critics, but he
was nonetheless sort of
somewhere in the bottom of that

was nonetheless sort of
somewhere in the bottom of that
group.

Somewhere in the bottom of that
group.
And this was of course for him

group.
And this was of course for him
the opportunity of a lifetime.

And this was of course for him
the opportunity of a lifetime.
Minoru Yamasaki is

the opportunity of a lifetime.
Minoru Yamasaki is
hired in the end of August in

Minoru Yamasaki is
hired in the end of August in
1962, and he's given this

hired in the end of August in
1962, and he's given this
unnegotiable standard by Guy

1962, and he's given this
unnegotiable standard by Guy
Tozzoli and Austin Tobin, which

unnegotiable standard by Guy
Tozzoli and Austin Tobin, which
is that the net square foot of

Tozzoli and Austin Tobin, which
is that the net square foot of
rentable space, including

is that the net square foot of
rentable space, including
offices and retail, must be ten

rentable space, including
offices and retail, must be ten
million.

Offices and retail, must be ten
million.
It's called the program, and its

million.
It's called the program, and its
nonnegotiable.

It's called the program, and its
nonnegotiable.
And he knows that he cannot

nonnegotiable.
And he knows that he cannot
even, you know, have a

And he knows that he cannot
even, you know, have a
conversation with Guy about

even, you know, have a
conversation with Guy about
this.

Conversation with Guy about
this.
"It was a terrifying

this.
"It was a terrifying
program from the standpoint of

"It was a terrifying
program from the standpoint of
size," Yamasaki remembered.

Program from the standpoint of
size," Yamasaki remembered.
"You just run scared before you

size," Yamasaki remembered.
"You just run scared before you
get adjusted."

"You just run scared before you
get adjusted."
For months, he searched for the

get adjusted."
For months, he searched for the
right form for the project,

For months, he searched for the
right form for the project,
working on a scale no architect

right form for the project,
working on a scale no architect
had ever before confronted,

working on a scale no architect
had ever before confronted,
struggling to reconcile his own

had ever before confronted,
struggling to reconcile his own
artistic sensibility with the

struggling to reconcile his own
artistic sensibility with the
overwhelming size of the

artistic sensibility with the
overwhelming size of the
program.

Overwhelming size of the
program.
Experimenting with one model

program.
Experimenting with one model
after another, he toyed with the

Experimenting with one model
after another, he toyed with the
idea of using ten smaller

after another, he toyed with the
idea of using ten smaller
structures, then one gigantic

idea of using ten smaller
structures, then one gigantic
one, but kept coming back to the

structures, then one gigantic
one, but kept coming back to the
image of two slender towers, one

one, but kept coming back to the
image of two slender towers, one
offset from the other... a design

image of two slender towers, one
offset from the other... a design
he hoped would combine the

offset from the other... a design
he hoped would combine the
practical requirements of the

he hoped would combine the
practical requirements of the
Port Authority's immense program

practical requirements of the
Port Authority's immense program
with the sculptural elegance he

Port Authority's immense program
with the sculptural elegance he
admired in the work of his great

with the sculptural elegance he
admired in the work of his great
mentor, the German architect

admired in the work of his great
mentor, the German architect
Mies van der Rohe.

Mentor, the German architect
Mies van der Rohe.
So he must have done

Mies van der Rohe.
So he must have done
50 or more different models,

So he must have done
50 or more different models,
limited by the 16-acre site that

50 or more different models,
limited by the 16-acre site that
we had.

Limited by the 16-acre site that
we had.
And finally, he sent word back

we had.
And finally, he sent word back
to me, "It's time for you to

And finally, he sent word back
to me, "It's time for you to
come out and I want to show you

to me, "It's time for you to
come out and I want to show you
the one I like the best."

come out and I want to show you
the one I like the best."
He had done twin towers and a

the one I like the best."
He had done twin towers and a
plaza about the size of Piazza

He had done twin towers and a
plaza about the size of Piazza
San Marco, just a little smaller

plaza about the size of Piazza
San Marco, just a little smaller
than that.

San Marco, just a little smaller
than that.
And it had a hotel, and it had

than that.
And it had a hotel, and it had
the Customs House, everything

And it had a hotel, and it had
the Customs House, everything
around it.

The Customs House, everything
around it.
It was a lovely, lovely design.

Around it.
It was a lovely, lovely design.
And so I said to Yama when I saw

It was a lovely, lovely design.
And so I said to Yama when I saw
it, I said, "This is very fine

And so I said to Yama when I saw
it, I said, "This is very fine
design, but does it meet my

it, I said, "This is very fine
design, but does it meet my
program?"

design, but does it meet my
program?"
"No," he said, "It's two million

program?"
"No," he said, "It's two million
feet short."

"No," he said, "It's two million
feet short."
I said, "Why is that?"

feet short."
I said, "Why is that?"
Well, he said, "The towers are

I said, "Why is that?"
Well, he said, "The towers are
80 floors high."

Well, he said, "The towers are
80 floors high."
He said, "You can't build a

80 floors high."
He said, "You can't build a
building taller than 80 floors."

He said, "You can't build a
building taller than 80 floors."
I said, "Why not?"

building taller than 80 floors."
I said, "Why not?"
"Well," he said, "Because the

I said, "Why not?"
"Well," he said, "Because the
configuration... the elevators

"Well," he said, "Because the
configuration... the elevators
take too much space.

Configuration... the elevators
take too much space.
That's why no one has ever done

take too much space.
That's why no one has ever done
that."

That's why no one has ever done
that."
And I remember saying to him,

that."
And I remember saying to him,
"You know, Yama, President

And I remember saying to him,
"You know, Yama, President
Kennedy is going to put a man on

"You know, Yama, President
Kennedy is going to put a man on
the moon.

Kennedy is going to put a man on
the moon.
You're going to figure out a way

the moon.
You're going to figure out a way
for me to build the world's

You're going to figure out a way
for me to build the world's
tallest buildings, because

for me to build the world's
tallest buildings, because
that'll get us the other two

tallest buildings, because
that'll get us the other two
million feet of space.

That'll get us the other two
million feet of space.
We'll just make those towers

million feet of space.
We'll just make those towers
higher."

We'll just make those towers
higher."
I'm sure

higher."
I'm sure
Guy Tozzoli said, "90 is not

I'm sure
Guy Tozzoli said, "90 is not
high enough, 100 is not high

Guy Tozzoli said, "90 is not
high enough, 100 is not high
enough, how about more space?"

high enough, 100 is not high
enough, how about more space?"
And I think he may not admit it,

enough, how about more space?"
And I think he may not admit it,
but my guess is he was cognizant

And I think he may not admit it,
but my guess is he was cognizant
of the fact that the Trade

but my guess is he was cognizant
of the fact that the Trade
Center was going to become a

of the fact that the Trade
Center was going to become a
real image of New York City.

Center was going to become a
real image of New York City.
And he had high aspirations that

real image of New York City.
And he had high aspirations that
that be the case.

And he had high aspirations that
that be the case.
In fact, Yamasaki

that be the case.
In fact, Yamasaki
continued to resist going up to

In fact, Yamasaki
continued to resist going up to
110 stories.

Continued to resist going up to
110 stories.
And he ultimately accepted and

110 stories.
And he ultimately accepted and
embraced the towers at their

And he ultimately accepted and
embraced the towers at their
height, and began to become the

embraced the towers at their
height, and began to become the
most famous architect of his

height, and began to become the
most famous architect of his
generation, briefly, and was on

most famous architect of his
generation, briefly, and was on
the cover of "Time" magazine,

generation, briefly, and was on
the cover of "Time" magazine,
because he was building the two

the cover of "Time" magazine,
because he was building the two
tallest towers.

Because he was building the two
tallest towers.
But he was never entirely

tallest towers.
But he was never entirely
comfortable, I don't think, with

But he was never entirely
comfortable, I don't think, with
the height that the towers

comfortable, I don't think, with
the height that the towers
reached.

The height that the towers
reached.
Despite strong

reached.
Despite strong
misgivings that the sheer size

Despite strong
misgivings that the sheer size
Tozzoli was demanding would

misgivings that the sheer size
Tozzoli was demanding would
compromise the aesthetic impact

Tozzoli was demanding would
compromise the aesthetic impact
of his towers, Yamasaki

compromise the aesthetic impact
of his towers, Yamasaki
eventually gave in, and after

of his towers, Yamasaki
eventually gave in, and after
huddling with his chief

eventually gave in, and after
huddling with his chief
engineers, finally agreed that

huddling with his chief
engineers, finally agreed that
the elevator problem could be

engineers, finally agreed that
the elevator problem could be
solved, and increased the height

the elevator problem could be
solved, and increased the height
of the towers.

Solved, and increased the height
of the towers.
On January 18, 1964, when the

of the towers.
On January 18, 1964, when the
final design was presented to

On January 18, 1964, when the
final design was presented to
the public at a press conference

final design was presented to
the public at a press conference
at the New York Hilton, the

the public at a press conference
at the New York Hilton, the
officials and reporters

at the New York Hilton, the
officials and reporters
assembled for the occasion were

officials and reporters
assembled for the occasion were
stunned.

Assembled for the occasion were
stunned.
Yamasaki's dramatically revised

stunned.
Yamasaki's dramatically revised
program called for two identical

Yamasaki's dramatically revised
program called for two identical
towers, each 110 stories tall, a

program called for two identical
towers, each 110 stories tall, a
full 100 feet higher than the

towers, each 110 stories tall, a
full 100 feet higher than the
Empire State Building.

Full 100 feet higher than the
Empire State Building.
With every floor over an acre in

Empire State Building.
With every floor over an acre in
size, each tower alone contained

With every floor over an acre in
size, each tower alone contained
twice the floor space of Al

size, each tower alone contained
twice the floor space of Al
Smith's Depression-era landmark

twice the floor space of Al
Smith's Depression-era landmark
Even Nelson Rockefeller was

Smith's Depression-era landmark
Even Nelson Rockefeller was
astounded by the plan, gleefully

Even Nelson Rockefeller was
astounded by the plan, gleefully
confiding to a senior aide, "My

astounded by the plan, gleefully
confiding to a senior aide, "My
God, these towers will make

confiding to a senior aide, "My
God, these towers will make
David's building look like an

God, these towers will make
David's building look like an
outhouse."

David's building look like an
outhouse."
An editorial in "The New York

outhouse."
An editorial in "The New York
Times" that ran the next day

An editorial in "The New York
Times" that ran the next day
took a more sober view.

Times" that ran the next day
took a more sober view.
"Their impact on New York, for

took a more sober view.
"Their impact on New York, for
better or for worse,

"Their impact on New York, for
better or for worse,
economically and

better or for worse,
economically and
architecturally, is bound to be

economically and
architecturally, is bound to be
enormous."

architecturally, is bound to be
enormous."
So the Twin Towers

enormous."
So the Twin Towers
started as one tower, they

So the Twin Towers
started as one tower, they
became twin towers, they kept

started as one tower, they
became twin towers, they kept
getting bigger and bigger, and

became twin towers, they kept
getting bigger and bigger, and
they really became an ego trip.

Getting bigger and bigger, and
they really became an ego trip.
Suddenly it became possible for

they really became an ego trip.
Suddenly it became possible for
the Port Authority to build the

Suddenly it became possible for
the Port Authority to build the
tallest buildings in the world,

the Port Authority to build the
tallest buildings in the world,
which is the most ephemeral of

tallest buildings in the world,
which is the most ephemeral of
all titles.

Which is the most ephemeral of
all titles.
It's taken away from you very

all titles.
It's taken away from you very
quickly, and always will be.

It's taken away from you very
quickly, and always will be.
But there is something that is

quickly, and always will be.
But there is something that is
inside of human beings that

But there is something that is
inside of human beings that
wants to reach for the skies.

Inside of human beings that
wants to reach for the skies.
And I'd like to think that it

wants to reach for the skies.
And I'd like to think that it
was that romantic and that

And I'd like to think that it
was that romantic and that
spiritual and that symbolic.

Was that romantic and that
spiritual and that symbolic.
In many ways, the

spiritual and that symbolic.
In many ways, the
release of Yamasaki's staggering

In many ways, the
release of Yamasaki's staggering
model marked a crucial turning

release of Yamasaki's staggering
model marked a crucial turning
point in the story of the World

model marked a crucial turning
point in the story of the World
Trade Center.

Point in the story of the World
Trade Center.
Within days of the press

Trade Center.
Within days of the press
conference at the New York

Within days of the press
conference at the New York
Hilton, a storm of protest had

conference at the New York
Hilton, a storm of protest had
begun to break over the offices

Hilton, a storm of protest had
begun to break over the offices
of the Port Authority, bringing

begun to break over the offices
of the Port Authority, bringing
to a climax tensions and

of the Port Authority, bringing
to a climax tensions and
conflicts that had been building

to a climax tensions and
conflicts that had been building
for years, and threatening to

conflicts that had been building
for years, and threatening to
halt the mammoth project before

for years, and threatening to
halt the mammoth project before
it had even gotten off the

halt the mammoth project before
it had even gotten off the
ground.

I started out
not liking the World Trade
Center, because the World Trade

not liking the World Trade
Center, because the World Trade
Center was the Conrad Veidt of

Center, because the World Trade
Center was the Conrad Veidt of
buildings.

Center was the Conrad Veidt of
buildings.
Conrad Veidt was the man you

buildings.
Conrad Veidt was the man you
loved to hate.

Conrad Veidt was the man you
loved to hate.
The World Trade Center were the

loved to hate.
The World Trade Center were the
buildings you loved to hate.

The World Trade Center were the
buildings you loved to hate.
I was very much around when the

buildings you loved to hate.
I was very much around when the
process of the clearing of the

I was very much around when the
process of the clearing of the
site and the protests about the

process of the clearing of the
site and the protests about the
destruction of that kind of

site and the protests about the
destruction of that kind of
funky agglomeration of street

destruction of that kind of
funky agglomeration of street
patterns and activities around

funky agglomeration of street
patterns and activities around
it were there.

Patterns and activities around
it were there.
I resented its massive dumbness,

it were there.
I resented its massive dumbness,
its huge size, its... the fact

I resented its massive dumbness,
its huge size, its... the fact
that it tipped the balance of

its huge size, its... the fact
that it tipped the balance of
the skyline to the west in an

that it tipped the balance of
the skyline to the west in an
unnatural way, if you can call

the skyline to the west in an
unnatural way, if you can call
something like a manmade skyline

unnatural way, if you can call
something like a manmade skyline
of Manhattan natural.

Something like a manmade skyline
of Manhattan natural.
For two full years,

of Manhattan natural.
For two full years,
as the towers spiraled higher in

For two full years,
as the towers spiraled higher in
Yamasaki's mind, and as the

as the towers spiraled higher in
Yamasaki's mind, and as the
ambitions of the Port Authority

Yamasaki's mind, and as the
ambitions of the Port Authority
vaulted upward, a bitter war had

ambitions of the Port Authority
vaulted upward, a bitter war had
been raging on the streets down

vaulted upward, a bitter war had
been raging on the streets down
below for the body and soul of

been raging on the streets down
below for the body and soul of
Lower Manhattan.

Below for the body and soul of
Lower Manhattan.
The Trade Center was

Lower Manhattan.
The Trade Center was
being realized at a time when

The Trade Center was
being realized at a time when
there was what could be

being realized at a time when
there was what could be
described as a paradigm shift

there was what could be
described as a paradigm shift
about architecture and urban

described as a paradigm shift
about architecture and urban
development.

About architecture and urban
development.
Preservation was a growing

development.
Preservation was a growing
sentiment among a wide number of

Preservation was a growing
sentiment among a wide number of
people in New York and other

sentiment among a wide number of
people in New York and other
places at this time.

People in New York and other
places at this time.
Remember, the Pennsylvania

places at this time.
Remember, the Pennsylvania
Station protest was '63, the

Remember, the Pennsylvania
Station protest was '63, the
destruction '66.

Station protest was '63, the
destruction '66.
It's just those years the Trade

destruction '66.
It's just those years the Trade
Center is being hatched and

It's just those years the Trade
Center is being hatched and
developed.

Center is being hatched and
developed.
And so you have these two models

developed.
And so you have these two models
of urbanism, or urban growth,

And so you have these two models
of urbanism, or urban growth,
coming head to head at the Trade

of urbanism, or urban growth,
coming head to head at the Trade
Center site.

Coming head to head at the Trade
Center site.
So people were very much divided

Center site.
So people were very much divided
as to whether this project

So people were very much divided
as to whether this project
should even happen.

As to whether this project
should even happen.
There was great

should even happen.
There was great
argument about it at the time.

There was great
argument about it at the time.
People said, "This is not the

argument about it at the time.
People said, "This is not the
business of the Port Authority.

People said, "This is not the
business of the Port Authority.
The Port Authority should be

business of the Port Authority.
The Port Authority should be
talking about the port.

The Port Authority should be
talking about the port.
If we're losing the ocean

talking about the port.
If we're losing the ocean
liners, what are we going to put

If we're losing the ocean
liners, what are we going to put
there?"

liners, what are we going to put
there?"
And it was a valid argument, I

there?"
And it was a valid argument, I
thought.

And it was a valid argument, I
thought.
The opposition came

thought.
The opposition came
from a lot of different

The opposition came
from a lot of different
directions.

From a lot of different
directions.
There were many people within

directions.
There were many people within
the New York real estate

There were many people within
the New York real estate
industry who were opposed to the

the New York real estate
industry who were opposed to the
World Trade Center's 10 million

industry who were opposed to the
World Trade Center's 10 million
square feet of new office space

World Trade Center's 10 million
square feet of new office space
flooding the market, because

square feet of new office space
flooding the market, because
they legitimately feared that

flooding the market, because
they legitimately feared that
that space would throw out of

they legitimately feared that
that space would throw out of
whack the whole commercial/

that space would throw out of
whack the whole commercial/
private market in real estate in

whack the whole commercial/
private market in real estate in
New York.

Private market in real estate in
New York.
When word is clear

New York.
When word is clear
that the Port Authority is going

When word is clear
that the Port Authority is going
to subsidize this enormous trade

that the Port Authority is going
to subsidize this enormous trade
complex, which is now only very

to subsidize this enormous trade
complex, which is now only very
marginally has anything to do

complex, which is now only very
marginally has anything to do
with the port, because, in fact,

marginally has anything to do
with the port, because, in fact,
they're moving the port, you

with the port, because, in fact,
they're moving the port, you
know.

They're moving the port, you
know.
So the old rationale is

know.
So the old rationale is
crumbling.

So the old rationale is
crumbling.
You get a complex of interests,

crumbling.
You get a complex of interests,
particularly the people who own

You get a complex of interests,
particularly the people who own
the Empire State Building, who

particularly the people who own
the Empire State Building, who
say, "Wait a minute!

The Empire State Building, who
say, "Wait a minute!
Foul ball!

Say, "Wait a minute!
Foul ball!
You're in fact using government

Foul ball!
You're in fact using government
public dollars to underwrite a

You're in fact using government
public dollars to underwrite a
massive new complex of office

public dollars to underwrite a
massive new complex of office
space.

Massive new complex of office
space.
What's going to happen to the

space.
What's going to happen to the
rental market?

What's going to happen to the
rental market?
It's going to not only destroy

rental market?
It's going to not only destroy
downtown, because you're going

It's going to not only destroy
downtown, because you're going
to build far more office space

downtown, because you're going
to build far more office space
than you actually need, but it's

to build far more office space
than you actually need, but it's
going to mess up my property up

than you actually need, but it's
going to mess up my property up
here in the Empire State

going to mess up my property up
here in the Empire State
Building."

here in the Empire State
Building."
So they bring suits, and they

Building."
So they bring suits, and they
try to stop it.

So they bring suits, and they
try to stop it.
The main objection

try to stop it.
The main objection
to this project came from the

The main objection
to this project came from the
people who owned the Empire

to this project came from the
people who owned the Empire
State Building: Harry Helmsley

people who owned the Empire
State Building: Harry Helmsley
and Larry Wien.

State Building: Harry Helmsley
and Larry Wien.
And when they heard the

and Larry Wien.
And when they heard the
announcement of our plan, which

And when they heard the
announcement of our plan, which
was in 1964, they formed a

announcement of our plan, which
was in 1964, they formed a
"Committee for a Reasonable

was in 1964, they formed a
"Committee for a Reasonable
World Trade Center."

"Committee for a Reasonable
World Trade Center."
And they gave them a budget of

World Trade Center."
And they gave them a budget of
$500,000 to prevent the

And they gave them a budget of
$500,000 to prevent the
construction of the World Trade

$500,000 to prevent the
construction of the World Trade
Center.

Construction of the World Trade
Center.
So I went and met with Mr.

Center.
So I went and met with Mr.
Helmsley one day.

So I went and met with Mr.
Helmsley one day.
I said, "Harry..."... I knew

Helmsley one day.
I said, "Harry..."... I knew
him... I said, "Harry, could you

I said, "Harry..."... I knew
him... I said, "Harry, could you
tell me what is a reasonable

him... I said, "Harry, could you
tell me what is a reasonable
World Trade Center?"

tell me what is a reasonable
World Trade Center?"
And he said, "Yes."

World Trade Center?"
And he said, "Yes."
I said, "What's that?"

And he said, "Yes."
I said, "What's that?"
He said, "100 floors high."

I said, "What's that?"
He said, "100 floors high."
And I said, "Well, your Empire

He said, "100 floors high."
And I said, "Well, your Empire
State Building's 102."

And I said, "Well, your Empire
State Building's 102."
And I said, "I'm sorry, but I

State Building's 102."
And I said, "I'm sorry, but I
think 110 is a better number."

And I said, "I'm sorry, but I
think 110 is a better number."
For more than half a

think 110 is a better number."
For more than half a
decade, the controversy raged

For more than half a
decade, the controversy raged
on, in and out of court, as the

decade, the controversy raged
on, in and out of court, as the
Port Authority battled one

on, in and out of court, as the
Port Authority battled one
opponent after another,

Port Authority battled one
opponent after another,
including, at one point, the

opponent after another,
including, at one point, the
city itself, which stood to lose

including, at one point, the
city itself, which stood to lose
millions in property taxes as a

city itself, which stood to lose
millions in property taxes as a
result of the project, and

millions in property taxes as a
result of the project, and
television broadcasters, who

result of the project, and
television broadcasters, who
feared the massive towers would

television broadcasters, who
feared the massive towers would
block reception of their

feared the massive towers would
block reception of their
signals.

Block reception of their
signals.
My mother, who loved

signals.
My mother, who loved
television, she said, "You know,

My mother, who loved
television, she said, "You know,
you're my son, and I love you

television, she said, "You know,
you're my son, and I love you
very much, but I must tell you,

you're my son, and I love you
very much, but I must tell you,
if you're going to hurt

very much, but I must tell you,
if you're going to hurt
television reception in this

if you're going to hurt
television reception in this
area, you better stop that

television reception in this
area, you better stop that
project of yours right now."

area, you better stop that
project of yours right now."
And I knew I had big problems.

Project of yours right now."
And I knew I had big problems.
In any case, we did.

And I knew I had big problems.
In any case, we did.
We actually negotiated a deal

In any case, we did.
We actually negotiated a deal
with the television people, and

We actually negotiated a deal
with the television people, and
they moved down to our place,

with the television people, and
they moved down to our place,
and it all worked out.

They moved down to our place,
and it all worked out.
In the end, the most

and it all worked out.
In the end, the most
tenacious, bitter and

In the end, the most
tenacious, bitter and
heartbreaking resistance to the

tenacious, bitter and
heartbreaking resistance to the
World Trade Center would come

heartbreaking resistance to the
World Trade Center would come
from the hundreds of small

World Trade Center would come
from the hundreds of small
businessmen whose shops and

from the hundreds of small
businessmen whose shops and
storefronts lined the ancient

businessmen whose shops and
storefronts lined the ancient
cobbled thoroughfares of Radio

storefronts lined the ancient
cobbled thoroughfares of Radio
Row, and whose entire way of

cobbled thoroughfares of Radio
Row, and whose entire way of
life was threatened with

Row, and whose entire way of
life was threatened with
extinction by the massive 16-

life was threatened with
extinction by the massive 16-
acre complex.

Extinction by the massive 16-
acre complex.
I really felt the

acre complex.
I really felt the
assault on Cortlandt Street,

I really felt the
assault on Cortlandt Street,
because you slowly began to look

assault on Cortlandt Street,
because you slowly began to look
at the plans as they emerge, and

because you slowly began to look
at the plans as they emerge, and
you find out there's not going

at the plans as they emerge, and
you find out there's not going
to be a Cortlandt Street.

You find out there's not going
to be a Cortlandt Street.
They're going to have a sign

to be a Cortlandt Street.
They're going to have a sign
that says Cortlandt Street, and

They're going to have a sign
that says Cortlandt Street, and
after that, it will be nothing

that says Cortlandt Street, and
after that, it will be nothing
but concrete and a plaza into

after that, it will be nothing
but concrete and a plaza into
which nobody ever stepped.

But concrete and a plaza into
which nobody ever stepped.
Well, that was the

which nobody ever stepped.
Well, that was the
urban renewal formula of the

Well, that was the
urban renewal formula of the
'60s, that was so disastrous in

urban renewal formula of the
'60s, that was so disastrous in
cities across the country: the

'60s, that was so disastrous in
cities across the country: the
idea of clearing out, supposedly

cities across the country: the
idea of clearing out, supposedly
getting rid of blight, which

idea of clearing out, supposedly
getting rid of blight, which
unfortunately was a synonym for

getting rid of blight, which
unfortunately was a synonym for
history and for small business,

unfortunately was a synonym for
history and for small business,
and then to substitute these

history and for small business,
and then to substitute these
superblocks with huge buildings.

And then to substitute these
superblocks with huge buildings.
The real estate community had an

superblocks with huge buildings.
The real estate community had an
expression, ripe for

The real estate community had an
expression, ripe for
redevelopment.

Expression, ripe for
redevelopment.
You cut off, you closed or

redevelopment.
You cut off, you closed or
there's an official word for

You cut off, you closed or
there's an official word for
that, too: you demapped

there's an official word for
that, too: you demapped
wonderful old streets and small

that, too: you demapped
wonderful old streets and small
buildings that gave you the

wonderful old streets and small
buildings that gave you the
history and the flavor and the

buildings that gave you the
history and the flavor and the
continuity of the city, and you

history and the flavor and the
continuity of the city, and you
put them together for a

continuity of the city, and you
put them together for a
superblock.

Put them together for a
superblock.
For the World Trade Center, 14

superblock.
For the World Trade Center, 14
historic streets became two

For the World Trade Center, 14
historic streets became two
superblocks.

Historic streets became two
superblocks.
If you're a planner,

superblocks.
If you're a planner,
you look at the map; or you're

If you're a planner,
you look at the map; or you're
in an airplane, you look down at

you look at the map; or you're
in an airplane, you look down at
the city, you see this area:

in an airplane, you look down at
the city, you see this area:
four-story buildings, slightly

the city, you see this area:
four-story buildings, slightly
tumbled down in appearance; what

four-story buildings, slightly
tumbled down in appearance; what
would appear to be marginal

tumbled down in appearance; what
would appear to be marginal
retail uses... electronics shops

would appear to be marginal
retail uses... electronics shops
and so forth.

Retail uses... electronics shops
and so forth.
So in the mentality of post-

and so forth.
So in the mentality of post-
World War II redevelopment, this

So in the mentality of post-
World War II redevelopment, this
was a soft area, an easy kill...

World War II redevelopment, this
was a soft area, an easy kill...
hardly anybody to relocate; no

was a soft area, an easy kill...
hardly anybody to relocate; no
institutions to relocate; and

hardly anybody to relocate; no
institutions to relocate; and
nobody living there, to speak

institutions to relocate; and
nobody living there, to speak
of.

Nobody living there, to speak
of.
So there it was, quick: one-two-

of.
So there it was, quick: one-two-
three, do it.

So there it was, quick: one-two-
three, do it.
But by the time the site began

three, do it.
But by the time the site began
to be really getting ready for

But by the time the site began
to be really getting ready for
clearance, people saying,

to be really getting ready for
clearance, people saying,
"You're tearing out this living,

clearance, people saying,
"You're tearing out this living,
vital part of the city.

"You're tearing out this living,
vital part of the city.
No sooner had the

vital part of the city.
No sooner had the
boundaries of the new west side

No sooner had the
boundaries of the new west side
location been announced, than

boundaries of the new west side
location been announced, than
store owners and merchants in

location been announced, than
store owners and merchants in
the area began mounting fierce

store owners and merchants in
the area began mounting fierce
resistance to the Port

the area began mounting fierce
resistance to the Port
Authority's plans.

Resistance to the Port
Authority's plans.
Well over 1,000

Authority's plans.
Well over 1,000
businessmen in this area, 13

Well over 1,000
businessmen in this area, 13
square blocks of Lower

businessmen in this area, 13
square blocks of Lower
Manhattan, we will fight this

square blocks of Lower
Manhattan, we will fight this
with all the strength that we

Manhattan, we will fight this
with all the strength that we
have in order preserve free

with all the strength that we
have in order preserve free
enterprise in Manhattan.

Have in order preserve free
enterprise in Manhattan.
We also feel very reluctant

enterprise in Manhattan.
We also feel very reluctant
about our city giving up 13

We also feel very reluctant
about our city giving up 13
square blocks to the Port

about our city giving up 13
square blocks to the Port
Authority.

Square blocks to the Port
Authority.
We have here a

Authority.
We have here a
13-block area, a thriving

We have here a
13-block area, a thriving
business area, that will be

13-block area, a thriving
business area, that will be
taken away from the city of New

business area, that will be
taken away from the city of New
York forever and for all time,

taken away from the city of New
York forever and for all time,
an area in which the people who

York forever and for all time,
an area in which the people who
are the elected people and

an area in which the people who
are the elected people and
should have what to say will

are the elected people and
should have what to say will
have no say ever again in this

should have what to say will
have no say ever again in this
particular area.

Have no say ever again in this
particular area.
Leading the fight was

particular area.
Leading the fight was
a pugnacious, self-made

Leading the fight was
a pugnacious, self-made
electronics shop owner named

a pugnacious, self-made
electronics shop owner named
Oscar Nadel, known as the king

electronics shop owner named
Oscar Nadel, known as the king
of Cortlandt Street, who was

Oscar Nadel, known as the king
of Cortlandt Street, who was
determined to do everything he

of Cortlandt Street, who was
determined to do everything he
could to keep the Port Authority

determined to do everything he
could to keep the Port Authority
from taking away his business.

Could to keep the Port Authority
from taking away his business.
Now, for the

from taking away his business.
Now, for the
last time I might say with

Now, for the
last time I might say with
respect to the Port Authority:

last time I might say with
respect to the Port Authority:
stay out of private enterprise.

Respect to the Port Authority:
stay out of private enterprise.
You were told to build bridges

stay out of private enterprise.
You were told to build bridges
and tunnels and airports.

You were told to build bridges
and tunnels and airports.
Build them.

And tunnels and airports.
Build them.
Stay in your business and we'll

Build them.
Stay in your business and we'll
stay in ours.

Stay in your business and we'll
stay in ours.
And Oscar devised a

stay in ours.
And Oscar devised a
series of spectacular protests.

And Oscar devised a
series of spectacular protests.
Probably the most memorable in a

series of spectacular protests.
Probably the most memorable in a
way was when he had people

Probably the most memorable in a
way was when he had people
parade him down the street in a

way was when he had people
parade him down the street in a
coffin with a sign that said,

parade him down the street in a
coffin with a sign that said,
"Here lies Mr. Small

coffin with a sign that said,
"Here lies Mr. Small
Businessman.

"Here lies Mr. Small
Businessman.
Don't let the Port Authority

Businessman.
Don't let the Port Authority
bury him."

Don't let the Port Authority
bury him."
Well, believe me, he got some

bury him."
Well, believe me, he got some
press.

Well, believe me, he got some
press.
As the furor over

press.
As the furor over
Radio Row came to a climax,

As the furor over
Radio Row came to a climax,
protests against large-scale

Radio Row came to a climax,
protests against large-scale
urban redevelopment projects of

protests against large-scale
urban redevelopment projects of
all kinds were gathering

urban redevelopment projects of
all kinds were gathering
momentum across the city.

All kinds were gathering
momentum across the city.
Just ten blocks to the north,

momentum across the city.
Just ten blocks to the north,
opponents of Robert Moses would

Just ten blocks to the north,
opponents of Robert Moses would
soon score a stunning triumph in

opponents of Robert Moses would
soon score a stunning triumph in
their fight to stop the Lower

soon score a stunning triumph in
their fight to stop the Lower
Manhattan Expressway.

Their fight to stop the Lower
Manhattan Expressway.
In the end, however, even the

Manhattan Expressway.
In the end, however, even the
rising tide of grassroots

In the end, however, even the
rising tide of grassroots
activism in New York would prove

rising tide of grassroots
activism in New York would prove
no match for the power of the

activism in New York would prove
no match for the power of the
Port Authority, or for the

no match for the power of the
Port Authority, or for the
extraordinary political skills

Port Authority, or for the
extraordinary political skills
of its fiercely determined

extraordinary political skills
of its fiercely determined
leader, Austin Tobin.

Of its fiercely determined
leader, Austin Tobin.
We're talking

leader, Austin Tobin.
We're talking
here about things in the public

We're talking
here about things in the public
interest in a free country that

here about things in the public
interest in a free country that
concern not a few store owners

interest in a free country that
concern not a few store owners
on a block down in this area,

concern not a few store owners
on a block down in this area,
but we're concerning something

on a block down in this area,
but we're concerning something
that's not tens of thousands or

but we're concerning something
that's not tens of thousands or
hundreds of thousands but

that's not tens of thousands or
hundreds of thousands but
millions of people and their

hundreds of thousands but
millions of people and their
livelihoods in this area, and

millions of people and their
livelihoods in this area, and
the whole future of this area

livelihoods in this area, and
the whole future of this area
and its great port, which is the

the whole future of this area
and its great port, which is the
foundation of its welfare in the

and its great port, which is the
foundation of its welfare in the
future.

Foundation of its welfare in the
future.
And those are the issues here,

future.
And those are the issues here,
and not any phony issue of the

And those are the issues here,
and not any phony issue of the
Port Authority wanting to get

and not any phony issue of the
Port Authority wanting to get
into the real estate business,

Port Authority wanting to get
into the real estate business,
which is the last thing in the

into the real estate business,
which is the last thing in the
world it has the slightest

which is the last thing in the
world it has the slightest
interest in.

World it has the slightest
interest in.
Austin Tobin wanted to

interest in.
Austin Tobin wanted to
win so bad.

Austin Tobin wanted to
win so bad.
There's no underestimating that

win so bad.
There's no underestimating that
internal fire.

There's no underestimating that
internal fire.
You can't run an agency like the

internal fire.
You can't run an agency like the
Port Authority, especially in

You can't run an agency like the
Port Authority, especially in
those times, and have the

Port Authority, especially in
those times, and have the
successes that it had, and not

those times, and have the
successes that it had, and not
have that fire inside.

Successes that it had, and not
have that fire inside.
Austin Tobin wanted it real bad.

Have that fire inside.
Austin Tobin wanted it real bad.
Now, on the technical side,

Austin Tobin wanted it real bad.
Now, on the technical side,
Tobin was just a lot smarter

Now, on the technical side,
Tobin was just a lot smarter
than the people he was playing

Tobin was just a lot smarter
than the people he was playing
against.

Than the people he was playing
against.
If the city was going to make a

against.
If the city was going to make a
move, he knew who his people in

If the city was going to make a
move, he knew who his people in
the city council were he could

move, he knew who his people in
the city council were he could
count on in a pinch.

The city council were he could
count on in a pinch.
He knew that if it became a

count on in a pinch.
He knew that if it became a
public relations battle, that he

He knew that if it became a
public relations battle, that he
had Lee Jaffe, who had all her

public relations battle, that he
had Lee Jaffe, who had all her
ducks in a row with the

had Lee Jaffe, who had all her
ducks in a row with the
newspapers.

Ducks in a row with the
newspapers.
And he had the technical guys.

Newspapers.
And he had the technical guys.
He could pull out arguments that

And he had the technical guys.
He could pull out arguments that
had the authority no one else

He could pull out arguments that
had the authority no one else
had.

Had the authority no one else
had.
No one else could do this.

Had.
No one else could do this.
How could the city council

No one else could do this.
How could the city council
counter an argument by his

How could the city council
counter an argument by his
engineering department that this

counter an argument by his
engineering department that this
kind of a structure was the way

engineering department that this
kind of a structure was the way
it had to be?

Kind of a structure was the way
it had to be?
How could someone come in from,

it had to be?
How could someone come in from,
you know, little Oscar Nadel's

How could someone come in from,
you know, little Oscar Nadel's
protest group and go up against

you know, little Oscar Nadel's
protest group and go up against
the people who had gone in and

protest group and go up against
the people who had gone in and
just put the second deck on the

the people who had gone in and
just put the second deck on the
George Washington Bridge, the

just put the second deck on the
George Washington Bridge, the
third tube in the Lincoln

George Washington Bridge, the
third tube in the Lincoln
Tunnel?

Third tube in the Lincoln
Tunnel?
In the end, the Port

Tunnel?
In the end, the Port
Authority prevailed on every

In the end, the Port
Authority prevailed on every
front.

Authority prevailed on every
front.
In March 1966, the New York

front.
In March 1966, the New York
State Court of Appeals turned

In March 1966, the New York
State Court of Appeals turned
back the last challenge to the

State Court of Appeals turned
back the last challenge to the
legality of its condemnations.

Back the last challenge to the
legality of its condemnations.
On the bright, windswept morning

legality of its condemnations.
On the bright, windswept morning
of March 21, 1966, as opponents

On the bright, windswept morning
of March 21, 1966, as opponents
of the project looked helplessly

of March 21, 1966, as opponents
of the project looked helplessly
on, the first red brick

of the project looked helplessly
on, the first red brick
structures on Radio Row, which

on, the first red brick
structures on Radio Row, which
had stood si

structures on Radio Row, which
had stood si
Civil War, began to come down.

Had stood si
Civil War, began to come down.
They lose.

Civil War, began to come down.
They lose.
To make a long story short, the

They lose.
To make a long story short, the
powers that are assembled in

To make a long story short, the
powers that are assembled in
favor of remaking lower

powers that are assembled in
favor of remaking lower
Manhattan triumph.

Favor of remaking lower
Manhattan triumph.
And one by one, these competing

Manhattan triumph.
And one by one, these competing
uses are literally driven into

And one by one, these competing
uses are literally driven into
the sea or pushed on somewhere

uses are literally driven into
the sea or pushed on somewhere
else.

The sea or pushed on somewhere
else.
I remember seeing

else.
I remember seeing
Cortlandt Street being shoveled

I remember seeing
Cortlandt Street being shoveled
off to become landfill for what

Cortlandt Street being shoveled
off to become landfill for what
became Battery Park City.

Off to become landfill for what
became Battery Park City.
I mean, literally, bulldozers

became Battery Park City.
I mean, literally, bulldozers
knocked down the old houses, and

I mean, literally, bulldozers
knocked down the old houses, and
just tipped them over, smashed

knocked down the old houses, and
just tipped them over, smashed
them over like they were big

just tipped them over, smashed
them over like they were big
fists, being leveled from the

them over like they were big
fists, being leveled from the
sky somehow.

Fists, being leveled from the
sky somehow.
Among the many things that were

sky somehow.
Among the many things that were
lost on September 11 were the

Among the many things that were
lost on September 11 were the
final Polaroid photographs of

lost on September 11 were the
final Polaroid photographs of
the houses on Cortlandt Street

final Polaroid photographs of
the houses on Cortlandt Street
with their prices that were

the houses on Cortlandt Street
with their prices that were
labeled on them by the

with their prices that were
labeled on them by the
assessors, what the owners were

labeled on them by the
assessors, what the owners were
going to get paid, you know,

assessors, what the owners were
going to get paid, you know,
$9,000, $12,000, $18,000,

going to get paid, you know,
$9,000, $12,000, $18,000,
whatever it was.

$9,000, $12,000, $18,000,
whatever it was.
All those original Polaroids, no

whatever it was.
All those original Polaroids, no
negatives, were lost in one of

All those original Polaroids, no
negatives, were lost in one of
the buildings on September 11.

Negatives, were lost in one of
the buildings on September 11.
So even that, even that record

the buildings on September 11.
So even that, even that record
of it is gone.

So even that, even that record
of it is gone.
"Who's afraid of the

of it is gone.
"Who's afraid of the
big, bad buildings?

"Who's afraid of the
big, bad buildings?
Everyone, because there are so

big, bad buildings?
Everyone, because there are so
many things about gigantism that

Everyone, because there are so
many things about gigantism that
we just don't know.

Many things about gigantism that
we just don't know.
The gamble of triumph or tragedy

we just don't know.
The gamble of triumph or tragedy
at this scale... and ultimately

The gamble of triumph or tragedy
at this scale... and ultimately
it is a gamble... demands an

at this scale... and ultimately
it is a gamble... demands an
extraordinary payoff.

It is a gamble... demands an
extraordinary payoff.
The Trade Center towers could be

extraordinary payoff.
The Trade Center towers could be
the start of a new skyscraper

The Trade Center towers could be
the start of a new skyscraper
age or the biggest tombstones in

the start of a new skyscraper
age or the biggest tombstones in
the world."

age or the biggest tombstones in
the world."
Ada Louise Huxtable, 1966.

The world."
Ada Louise Huxtable, 1966.
I was in a dentist's

Ada Louise Huxtable, 1966.
I was in a dentist's
waiting room in Paris with a

I was in a dentist's
waiting room in Paris with a
giant toothache, and I was

waiting room in Paris with a
giant toothache, and I was
looking at what usually, you

giant toothache, and I was
looking at what usually, you
know, look through those old

looking at what usually, you
know, look through those old
magazine, old newspapers.

Know, look through those old
magazine, old newspapers.
And somehow I fell onto a small

magazine, old newspapers.
And somehow I fell onto a small
article, but the picture really

And somehow I fell onto a small
article, but the picture really
called my attention.

Article, but the picture really
called my attention.
It was the Twin Towers, but in

called my attention.
It was the Twin Towers, but in
their model form, because it was

It was the Twin Towers, but in
their model form, because it was
in 1968 and they had not yet

their model form, because it was
in 1968 and they had not yet
started to be built.

In 1968 and they had not yet
started to be built.
And I had not yet started to be

started to be built.
And I had not yet started to be
a wire walker, which is actually

And I had not yet started to be
a wire walker, which is actually
the amazing part of the story.

A wire walker, which is actually
the amazing part of the story.
So how could I fall in love with

the amazing part of the story.
So how could I fall in love with
those two towers, the highest

So how could I fall in love with
those two towers, the highest
towers in the world?

Those two towers, the highest
towers in the world?
Said the article, "So

towers in the world?
Said the article, "So
presumptuous, so arrogant, so

Said the article, "So
presumptuous, so arrogant, so
naive, so romantic."

presumptuous, so arrogant, so
naive, so romantic."
And it was all of that.

Naive, so romantic."
And it was all of that.
And I remember, I just... I had

And it was all of that.
And I remember, I just... I had
to tear the article, and

And I remember, I just... I had
to tear the article, and
everybody was watching me.

To tear the article, and
everybody was watching me.
You know, in France everybody's

everybody was watching me.
You know, in France everybody's
watching each other.

You know, in France everybody's
watching each other.
It was very quiet, and I

watching each other.
It was very quiet, and I
couldn't rip the page, and plus

It was very quiet, and I
couldn't rip the page, and plus
you don't, you know, you don't

couldn't rip the page, and plus
you don't, you know, you don't
steal something.

You don't, you know, you don't
steal something.
So I actually let go a giant

steal something.
So I actually let go a giant
sneeze and under the cover of

So I actually let go a giant
sneeze and under the cover of
the sneeze I tore the article,

sneeze and under the cover of
the sneeze I tore the article,
put it under my shirt and I had

the sneeze I tore the article,
put it under my shirt and I had
to leave and I had to find

put it under my shirt and I had
to leave and I had to find
another dentist.

To leave and I had to find
another dentist.
But, you know, what was it to

another dentist.
But, you know, what was it to
have a toothache for another

But, you know, what was it to
have a toothache for another
week when what I had now in my

have a toothache for another
week when what I had now in my
chest was a dream?

One of the most
poignant of the many ironies
surrounding the story of the

poignant of the many ironies
surrounding the story of the
World Trade Center was that the

surrounding the story of the
World Trade Center was that the
extraordinary saga of its

World Trade Center was that the
extraordinary saga of its
physical rise... by any measure

extraordinary saga of its
physical rise... by any measure
one of the greatest engineering

physical rise... by any measure
one of the greatest engineering
feats of the age... would go

one of the greatest engineering
feats of the age... would go
largely unnoticed at the time,

feats of the age... would go
largely unnoticed at the time,
and come to be widely

largely unnoticed at the time,
and come to be widely
appreciated only after its

and come to be widely
appreciated only after its
demise.

Appreciated only after its
demise.
From the very start, the

demise.
From the very start, the
challenge of constructing two

From the very start, the
challenge of constructing two
immense towers, not only taller

challenge of constructing two
immense towers, not only taller
but far larger than any other in

immense towers, not only taller
but far larger than any other in
the world, would force Austin

but far larger than any other in
the world, would force Austin
Tobin's team of builders and

the world, would force Austin
Tobin's team of builders and
engineers to reinvent almost

Tobin's team of builders and
engineers to reinvent almost
every aspect of skyscraper

engineers to reinvent almost
every aspect of skyscraper
technology and design,

every aspect of skyscraper
technology and design,
challenging not only the height,

technology and design,
challenging not only the height,
but the most basic construction

challenging not only the height,
but the most basic construction
principles of its great rival,

but the most basic construction
principles of its great rival,
the Empire State Building, and

principles of its great rival,
the Empire State Building, and
producing along the way one of

the Empire State Building, and
producing along the way one of
the greatest works of

producing along the way one of
the greatest works of
engineering art ever created.

The greatest works of
engineering art ever created.
The two buildings,

engineering art ever created.
The two buildings,
Empire State and World Trade

The two buildings,
Empire State and World Trade
Center, were in one way the same

Empire State and World Trade
Center, were in one way the same
in that they were symbolic of

Center, were in one way the same
in that they were symbolic of
the city of New York.

In that they were symbolic of
the city of New York.
But inside... inside of the guts

the city of New York.
But inside... inside of the guts
of it, if you will, the

But inside... inside of the guts
of it, if you will, the
structure, entirely different.

Of it, if you will, the
structure, entirely different.
Entirely different buildings.

Structure, entirely different.
Entirely different buildings.
I think the genius of

Entirely different buildings.
I think the genius of
the towers lay in the

I think the genius of
the towers lay in the
engineering rather than in the

the towers lay in the
engineering rather than in the
architecture.

Engineering rather than in the
architecture.
To build the world's tallest

architecture.
To build the world's tallest
buildings and 110 stories took a

To build the world's tallest
buildings and 110 stories took a
special kind of genius, and that

buildings and 110 stories took a
special kind of genius, and that
was really Les Robertson and his

special kind of genius, and that
was really Les Robertson and his
partners who came up with a way,

was really Les Robertson and his
partners who came up with a way,
a device, a plan in order to

partners who came up with a way,
a device, a plan in order to
realize the architectural

a device, a plan in order to
realize the architectural
simplicity of Yamasaki's

realize the architectural
simplicity of Yamasaki's
concept.

Simplicity of Yamasaki's
concept.
The tallest

concept.
The tallest
building I'd ever worked on was

The tallest
building I'd ever worked on was
20 or 22 stories.

Building I'd ever worked on was
20 or 22 stories.
But I had the kind of background

20 or 22 stories.
But I had the kind of background
that very few structural

But I had the kind of background
that very few structural
engineers had.

That very few structural
engineers had.
I was a pretty good

engineers had.
I was a pretty good
mathematician; I knew a lot

I was a pretty good
mathematician; I knew a lot
about the dynamics of structures

mathematician; I knew a lot
about the dynamics of structures
and even the dynamics of

about the dynamics of structures
and even the dynamics of
electrical circuits.

And even the dynamics of
electrical circuits.
In addition to that, I wasn't

electrical circuits.
In addition to that, I wasn't
burdened with the baggage of

In addition to that, I wasn't
burdened with the baggage of
having done it before.

Burdened with the baggage of
having done it before.
I could sort of look at all

having done it before.
I could sort of look at all
those ideas and choose from

I could sort of look at all
those ideas and choose from
them, and develop new ones, and

those ideas and choose from
them, and develop new ones, and
make, I think, a new kind of

them, and develop new ones, and
make, I think, a new kind of
building, something that hadn't

make, I think, a new kind of
building, something that hadn't
been created before.

Building, something that hadn't
been created before.
They weren't just

been created before.
They weren't just
building the biggest skyscrapers

They weren't just
building the biggest skyscrapers
that had ever been put up.

Building the biggest skyscrapers
that had ever been put up.
They were doing it in a way that

that had ever been put up.
They were doing it in a way that
hadn't really been tried before

They were doing it in a way that
hadn't really been tried before
on anything remotely like that

hadn't really been tried before
on anything remotely like that
scale.

On anything remotely like that
scale.
Engineers: they use ideas, for

scale.
Engineers: they use ideas, for
the most part, that have been

Engineers: they use ideas, for
the most part, that have been
used before.

The most part, that have been
used before.
They couldn't do that in the

used before.
They couldn't do that in the
World Trade Center, and so you

They couldn't do that in the
World Trade Center, and so you
have a cross between an engineer

World Trade Center, and so you
have a cross between an engineer
and a research physicist, in

have a cross between an engineer
and a research physicist, in
effect, that is being called

and a research physicist, in
effect, that is being called
into play to build these

effect, that is being called
into play to build these
structures.

Into play to build these
structures.
On the morning of

structures.
On the morning of
August 5, 1966, work on the

On the morning of
August 5, 1966, work on the
World Trade Center finally

August 5, 1966, work on the
World Trade Center finally
began.

World Trade Center finally
began.
The first challenge came with

began.
The first challenge came with
the foundations themselves,

The first challenge came with
the foundations themselves,
which would have to descend

the foundations themselves,
which would have to descend
through 70 feet of water-logged

which would have to descend
through 70 feet of water-logged
landfill originally laid down by

through 70 feet of water-logged
landfill originally laid down by
the English before reaching

landfill originally laid down by
the English before reaching
bedrock.

The English before reaching
bedrock.
To keep the waters of the nearby

bedrock.
To keep the waters of the nearby
Hudson at ba

To keep the waters of the nearby
Hudson at ba
engineers constructed a gigantic

Hudson at ba
engineers constructed a gigantic
concrete "bathtub," two blocks

engineers constructed a gigantic
concrete "bathtub," two blocks
wide and four blocks long and

concrete "bathtub," two blocks
wide and four blocks long and
seven stories high, unearthing

wide and four blocks long and
seven stories high, unearthing
in the process... along with 1.2

seven stories high, unearthing
in the process... along with 1.2
million cubic yards of dirt...

In the process... along with 1.2
million cubic yards of dirt...
haunting reminders of the city's

million cubic yards of dirt...
haunting reminders of the city's
long-vanished colonial past,

haunting reminders of the city's
long-vanished colonial past,
including ship anchors,

long-vanished colonial past,
including ship anchors,
cannonballs, clay pipes, and

including ship anchors,
cannonballs, clay pipes, and
British coins dating back to the

cannonballs, clay pipes, and
British coins dating back to the
reign of King George II.

British coins dating back to the
reign of King George II.
The greatest challenge by far,

reign of King George II.
The greatest challenge by far,
however, lay in the engineering

The greatest challenge by far,
however, lay in the engineering
of the towers themselves.

However, lay in the engineering
of the towers themselves.
From the start, it was clear

of the towers themselves.
From the start, it was clear
that the Port Authority's demand

From the start, it was clear
that the Port Authority's demand
for vast expanses of infinitely

that the Port Authority's demand
for vast expanses of infinitely
flexible office space, and the

for vast expanses of infinitely
flexible office space, and the
towering sculptural forms

flexible office space, and the
towering sculptural forms
Yamasaki had designed to meet

towering sculptural forms
Yamasaki had designed to meet
it, would require a complete

Yamasaki had designed to meet
it, would require a complete
break with the traditional

it, would require a complete
break with the traditional
techniques of skyscraper

break with the traditional
techniques of skyscraper
construction, stretching back

techniques of skyscraper
construction, stretching back
nearly a century.

Construction, stretching back
nearly a century.
The World Trade

nearly a century.
The World Trade
Center represented a great

The World Trade
Center represented a great
advance, technologically, over

Center represented a great
advance, technologically, over
skyscrapers before its time.

Advance, technologically, over
skyscrapers before its time.
It represented much more of an

skyscrapers before its time.
It represented much more of an
advance technologically than

It represented much more of an
advance technologically than
architecturally.

Advance technologically than
architecturally.
Unlike a traditional skyscraper

architecturally.
Unlike a traditional skyscraper
that's supported by a steel or

Unlike a traditional skyscraper
that's supported by a steel or
concrete gridwork of columns and

that's supported by a steel or
concrete gridwork of columns and
beams going all the way through

concrete gridwork of columns and
beams going all the way through
the building, the Trade Center

beams going all the way through
the building, the Trade Center
is supported mainly by its

the building, the Trade Center
is supported mainly by its
exterior walls, which were this

is supported mainly by its
exterior walls, which were this
very, very tight, tight mesh of

exterior walls, which were this
very, very tight, tight mesh of
steel, so tightly woven that it

very, very tight, tight mesh of
steel, so tightly woven that it
could support the weight of the

steel, so tightly woven that it
could support the weight of the
building.

Could support the weight of the
building.
In a way, it's sort of like

building.
In a way, it's sort of like
those steel mesh litter baskets

In a way, it's sort of like
those steel mesh litter baskets
that one sees out on the

those steel mesh litter baskets
that one sees out on the
sidewalk that are actually a

that one sees out on the
sidewalk that are actually a
very strong structure.

Sidewalk that are actually a
very strong structure.
But this is 110 stories' worth,

very strong structure.
But this is 110 stories' worth,
and square rather than round.

But this is 110 stories' worth,
and square rather than round.
But the same kind of idea.

And square rather than round.
But the same kind of idea.
The Trade Center

But the same kind of idea.
The Trade Center
had a different kind of

The Trade Center
had a different kind of
structure.

Had a different kind of
structure.
It was built more like the wing

structure.
It was built more like the wing
of an airplane.

It was built more like the wing
of an airplane.
In the wing of the airplane, the

of an airplane.
In the wing of the airplane, the
strength is all in the surface

In the wing of the airplane, the
strength is all in the surface
of the wing or the fuselage, in

strength is all in the surface
of the wing or the fuselage, in
both cases.

Of the wing or the fuselage, in
both cases.
All of the interior columns that

both cases.
All of the interior columns that
had been used in the past were a

All of the interior columns that
had been used in the past were a
detriment.

Had been used in the past were a
detriment.
They were harmful to the design,

detriment.
They were harmful to the design,
because we didn't want those

They were harmful to the design,
because we didn't want those
interior columns.

Because we didn't want those
interior columns.
We wanted that weight out on the

interior columns.
We wanted that weight out on the
outside, where it would do some

We wanted that weight out on the
outside, where it would do some
good for the stalwartness of the

outside, where it would do some
good for the stalwartness of the
building in resisting these

good for the stalwartness of the
building in resisting these
giant loads from the wind.

Building in resisting these
giant loads from the wind.
Only such a design,

giant loads from the wind.
Only such a design,
Robertson knew, could fulfill

Only such a design,
Robertson knew, could fulfill
the unprecedented practical

Robertson knew, could fulfill
the unprecedented practical
needs of the building, and still

the unprecedented practical
needs of the building, and still
counteract the greatest natural

needs of the building, and still
counteract the greatest natural
stress to the towering, sail-

counteract the greatest natural
stress to the towering, sail-
like structures... the force not

stress to the towering, sail-
like structures... the force not
of gravity, but the wind.

Like structures... the force not
of gravity, but the wind.
You know, if you put

of gravity, but the wind.
You know, if you put
your feet close together and

You know, if you put
your feet close together and
somebody shoves on your

your feet close together and
somebody shoves on your
shoulder, it's easy for you to

somebody shoves on your
shoulder, it's easy for you to
fall over.

Shoulder, it's easy for you to
fall over.
If you put your feet apart, and

fall over.
If you put your feet apart, and
someone shoves on your shoulder,

If you put your feet apart, and
someone shoves on your shoulder,
it's easy for you to stand up.

Someone shoves on your shoulder,
it's easy for you to stand up.
And the steel on the outside of

it's easy for you to stand up.
And the steel on the outside of
the towers was like your feet

And the steel on the outside of
the towers was like your feet
spread apart.

The towers was like your feet
spread apart.
And the shove was like the gusts

spread apart.
And the shove was like the gusts
of the wind, you know, in off

And the shove was like the gusts
of the wind, you know, in off
the Atlantic Ocean.

Of the wind, you know, in off
the Atlantic Ocean.
If you put the steel out there,

the Atlantic Ocean.
If you put the steel out there,
you could save a lot of money,

If you put the steel out there,
you could save a lot of money,
probably 40%, in the total

you could save a lot of money,
probably 40%, in the total
amount of steel.

Probably 40%, in the total
amount of steel.
But it also had other

amount of steel.
But it also had other
implications for how you would

But it also had other
implications for how you would
use this building, and one of

implications for how you would
use this building, and one of
them is that you would have none

use this building, and one of
them is that you would have none
of these interior columns that

them is that you would have none
of these interior columns that
hold up the Empire State

of these interior columns that
hold up the Empire State
Building every 20 feet, messing

hold up the Empire State
Building every 20 feet, messing
up your floor plan.

Building every 20 feet, messing
up your floor plan.
So anybody could come in and

up your floor plan.
So anybody could come in and
deal with the floors however

So anybody could come in and
deal with the floors however
they wanted to, put up their

deal with the floors however
they wanted to, put up their
partitions, and it was kind of

they wanted to, put up their
partitions, and it was kind of
real-estate paradise.

Partitions, and it was kind of
real-estate paradise.
Now, in fact, it was a

real-estate paradise.
Now, in fact, it was a
design that looked great on

Now, in fact, it was a
design that looked great on
paper.

Design that looked great on
paper.
But when they went out to the

paper.
But when they went out to the
wind tunnel in Fort Collins,

But when they went out to the
wind tunnel in Fort Collins,
Colorado before they put the

wind tunnel in Fort Collins,
Colorado before they put the
buildings up, they found out

Colorado before they put the
buildings up, they found out
that the structure, when it was

buildings up, they found out
that the structure, when it was
really put together, at least in

that the structure, when it was
really put together, at least in
miniature form, didn't work

really put together, at least in
miniature form, didn't work
quite the way they'd expected.

Miniature form, didn't work
quite the way they'd expected.
It just swayed too much beyond

quite the way they'd expected.
It just swayed too much beyond
anything that would have been

It just swayed too much beyond
anything that would have been
remotely reasonable.

Anything that would have been
remotely reasonable.
In fact, they moved so far that

remotely reasonable.
In fact, they moved so far that
at least one model broke and

In fact, they moved so far that
at least one model broke and
fell over in the wind.

At least one model broke and
fell over in the wind.
Now, that didn't mean that the

fell over in the wind.
Now, that didn't mean that the
real towers would fall over.

Now, that didn't mean that the
real towers would fall over.
It just meant that they hadn't

real towers would fall over.
It just meant that they hadn't
taken into account the

It just meant that they hadn't
taken into account the
tremendous forces they were

taken into account the
tremendous forces they were
going to be dealing with.

Tremendous forces they were
going to be dealing with.
And so we had to

going to be dealing with.
And so we had to
rethink the entire process.

And so we had to
rethink the entire process.
How much can a building move in

rethink the entire process.
How much can a building move in
the wind?

How much can a building move in
the wind?
How much would they oscillate?

The wind?
How much would they oscillate?
No one had ever found out.

How much would they oscillate?
No one had ever found out.
No one had ever tried to find

No one had ever found out.
No one had ever tried to find
out, even, or even thought there

No one had ever tried to find
out, even, or even thought there
was an issue to find out about.

Out, even, or even thought there
was an issue to find out about.
Not only, "how much does it

was an issue to find out about.
Not only, "how much does it
move, how much can it move?

Not only, "how much does it
move, how much can it move?
And the upshot of it

move, how much can it move?
And the upshot of it
was that Robertson and his

And the upshot of it
was that Robertson and his
collaborator, Alan Davenport,

was that Robertson and his
collaborator, Alan Davenport,
came up with the idea of

collaborator, Alan Davenport,
came up with the idea of
basically putting shock

came up with the idea of
basically putting shock
absorbers in buildings, which

basically putting shock
absorbers in buildings, which
had never been done before.

Absorbers in buildings, which
had never been done before.
And, you know, God darn it, it

had never been done before.
And, you know, God darn it, it
worked.

And, you know, God darn it, it
worked.
They kept these things from

worked.
They kept these things from
swaying beyond the tolerances

They kept these things from
swaying beyond the tolerances
that they'd set.

Swaying beyond the tolerances
that they'd set.
They could resist an

that they'd set.
They could resist an
150-mile wind blowing

They could resist an
150-mile wind blowing
consecutively on one side of the

150-mile wind blowing
consecutively on one side of the
building for 30 minutes, and

consecutively on one side of the
building for 30 minutes, and
they would not fall down.

Building for 30 minutes, and
they would not fall down.
I used to say, "They move like a

they would not fall down.
I used to say, "They move like a
snake."

I used to say, "They move like a
snake."
Different from all other

snake."
Different from all other
buildings in the world, the

Different from all other
buildings in the world, the
strength to resist the wind is

buildings in the world, the
strength to resist the wind is
in the outside walls instead of

strength to resist the wind is
in the outside walls instead of
the elevator core, which is

in the outside walls instead of
the elevator core, which is
normal for all other high-rise

the elevator core, which is
normal for all other high-rise
buildings in the world.

Normal for all other high-rise
buildings in the world.
And so these towers were much

buildings in the world.
And so these towers were much
stronger, if you would.

And so these towers were much
stronger, if you would.
The really sublime

stronger, if you would.
The really sublime
thing about this, from the point

The really sublime
thing about this, from the point
of view of the Port Authority,

thing about this, from the point
of view of the Port Authority,
is that all of this is happening

of view of the Port Authority,
is that all of this is happening
in the background while Austin

is that all of this is happening
in the background while Austin
Tobin is passionately defending

in the background while Austin
Tobin is passionately defending
these structures against the

Tobin is passionately defending
these structures against the
critics back in New York City,

these structures against the
critics back in New York City,
who have no idea that any of

critics back in New York City,
who have no idea that any of
this is going on in the

who have no idea that any of
this is going on in the
background.

This is going on in the
background.
All it would have taken,

background.
All it would have taken,
probably, was for some of the

All it would have taken,
probably, was for some of the
opponents to know what was going

probably, was for some of the
opponents to know what was going
on behind the scenes.

Opponents to know what was going
on behind the scenes.
When they're out in Colorado in

on behind the scenes.
When they're out in Colorado in
the wind tunnel and one of the

When they're out in Colorado in
the wind tunnel and one of the
models fell over, put that in

the wind tunnel and one of the
models fell over, put that in
one New York newspaper, and

models fell over, put that in
one New York newspaper, and
there's no World Trade Center.

One New York newspaper, and
there's no World Trade Center.
When they're out in Eugene,

there's no World Trade Center.
When they're out in Eugene,
Oregon, testing people in a

When they're out in Eugene,
Oregon, testing people in a
room, and people are getting

Oregon, testing people in a
room, and people are getting
sick as they go back and forth,

room, and people are getting
sick as they go back and forth,
as the motion of the building is

sick as they go back and forth,
as the motion of the building is
being simulated; again, put that

as the motion of the building is
being simulated; again, put that
in one television program in

being simulated; again, put that
in one television program in
prime time in New York City.

In one television program in
prime time in New York City.
It's very hard to see how the

prime time in New York City.
It's very hard to see how the
World Trade

It's very hard to see how the
World Trade
be built.

World Trade
be built.
But the Port Authority

be built.
But the Port Authority
successfully walled off that and

But the Port Authority
successfully walled off that and
other information from the

successfully walled off that and
other information from the
public in the way that shows how

other information from the
public in the way that shows how
good they were, how good Austin

public in the way that shows how
good they were, how good Austin
Tobin was.

Good they were, how good Austin
Tobin was.
As innovative in

Tobin was.
As innovative in
their construction as they were

As innovative in
their construction as they were
in their design, the towers were

their construction as they were
in their design, the towers were
assembled, not one column at a

in their design, the towers were
assembled, not one column at a
time, but in immense pre-

assembled, not one column at a
time, but in immense pre-
assembled pieces, each three-

time, but in immense pre-
assembled pieces, each three-
stories tall, that dramatically

assembled pieces, each three-
stories tall, that dramatically
speeded the construction

stories tall, that dramatically
speeded the construction
process.

Speeded the construction
process.
We had

process.
We had
experimented with prefabrication

We had
experimented with prefabrication
in a few buildings, but never

experimented with prefabrication
in a few buildings, but never
even close to the scale that it

in a few buildings, but never
even close to the scale that it
was done on the World Trade

even close to the scale that it
was done on the World Trade
Center.

Was done on the World Trade
Center.
Huge prefabricated elements,

Center.
Huge prefabricated elements,
constructed all over the United

Huge prefabricated elements,
constructed all over the United
States, with materials that came

constructed all over the United
States, with materials that came
from all over the world, and

States, with materials that came
from all over the world, and
finally assembled into one

from all over the world, and
finally assembled into one
building in New York City.

Finally assembled into one
building in New York City.
We had steelwork being

building in New York City.
We had steelwork being
fabricated in Los Angeles, in

We had steelwork being
fabricated in Los Angeles, in
Dallas, in Seattle, in

fabricated in Los Angeles, in
Dallas, in Seattle, in
Pittsburgh, in Virginia and down

Dallas, in Seattle, in
Pittsburgh, in Virginia and down
into Georgia and up into Canada.

Pittsburgh, in Virginia and down
into Georgia and up into Canada.
And all of that was coordinated

into Georgia and up into Canada.
And all of that was coordinated
through our offices.

And all of that was coordinated
through our offices.
At the peak of

through our offices.
At the peak of
construction, more than 800 tons

At the peak of
construction, more than 800 tons
of structural steel were being

construction, more than 800 tons
of structural steel were being
delivered each day to the

of structural steel were being
delivered each day to the
massive construction site,

delivered each day to the
massive construction site,
raised into the sky by four

massive construction site,
raised into the sky by four
Australian-built kangaroo

raised into the sky by four
Australian-built kangaroo
cranes, and bolted into place by

Australian-built kangaroo
cranes, and bolted into place by
Austin Tobin's army of 3,600

cranes, and bolted into place by
Austin Tobin's army of 3,600
men: an extraordinary team of

Austin Tobin's army of 3,600
men: an extraordinary team of
iron workers and construction

men: an extraordinary team of
iron workers and construction
specialists that included Carl

iron workers and construction
specialists that included Carl
Furillo, who had once played

specialists that included Carl
Furillo, who had once played
right field for the Brooklyn

Furillo, who had once played
right field for the Brooklyn
Dodgers; and a New Jersey man

right field for the Brooklyn
Dodgers; and a New Jersey man
named George Nelson, who 40

Dodgers; and a New Jersey man
named George Nelson, who 40
years earlier had helped build

named George Nelson, who 40
years earlier had helped build
the Empire State Building, and

years earlier had helped build
the Empire State Building, and
who now shrugged off work on the

the Empire State Building, and
who now shrugged off work on the
World Trade Center as "just

who now shrugged off work on the
World Trade Center as "just
another building."

World Trade Center as "just
another building."
The Koch Erecting

another building."
The Koch Erecting
set were the incredible people

The Koch Erecting
set were the incredible people
who ran the job.

Set were the incredible people
who ran the job.
And I still see Mr. Koch from

who ran the job.
And I still see Mr. Koch from
time to time, and I remind him,

And I still see Mr. Koch from
time to time, and I remind him,
not one ironworker was killed in

time to time, and I remind him,
not one ironworker was killed in
the construction of the World

not one ironworker was killed in
the construction of the World
Trade Center.

The construction of the World
Trade Center.
And this is what they used to

Trade Center.
And this is what they used to
do: they'd be up on the steel

And this is what they used to
do: they'd be up on the steel
and they'd look out, and they'd

do: they'd be up on the steel
and they'd look out, and they'd
say, "We're going to be all

and they'd look out, and they'd
say, "We're going to be all
right today, boys.

Say, "We're going to be all
right today, boys.
Mr. Koch just went to Mass."

right today, boys.
Mr. Koch just went to Mass."
There's a little Catholic church

Mr. Koch just went to Mass."
There's a little Catholic church
down there.

There's a little Catholic church
down there.
He went at 8:00 every morning.

Down there.
He went at 8:00 every morning.
And they said, "That takes care

He went at 8:00 every morning.
And they said, "That takes care
of us for the day."

And they said, "That takes care
of us for the day."
And sure enough, not a single

of us for the day."
And sure enough, not a single
ironworker died.

And sure enough, not a single
ironworker died.
Now, of course, the building

ironworker died.
Now, of course, the building
lent itself to that because we

Now, of course, the building
lent itself to that because we
put steel up on the outside

lent itself to that because we
put steel up on the outside
walls.

Put steel up on the outside
walls.
And then you could only fall two

walls.
And then you could only fall two
or three floors, if you ever

And then you could only fall two
or three floors, if you ever
fell off.

Or three floors, if you ever
fell off.
But that was the way it was.

Fell off.
But that was the way it was.
Before signing off on

But that was the way it was.
Before signing off on
the design, Robertson and his

Before signing off on
the design, Robertson and his
team performed one last

the design, Robertson and his
team performed one last
unprecedented safety check.

Team performed one last
unprecedented safety check.
One of my jobs was

unprecedented safety check.
One of my jobs was
to look at all of the possible

One of my jobs was
to look at all of the possible
events that might take place in

to look at all of the possible
events that might take place in
a high-rise building.

Events that might take place in
a high-rise building.
And, of course, there had been

a high-rise building.
And, of course, there had been
in New York two incidences of

And, of course, there had been
in New York two incidences of
aircraft impact, the most famous

in New York two incidences of
aircraft impact, the most famous
one of course being on the

aircraft impact, the most famous
one of course being on the
Empire State Building.

One of course being on the
Empire State Building.
Now, we were looking at an

Empire State Building.
Now, we were looking at an
aircraft not unlike the Mitchell

Now, we were looking at an
aircraft not unlike the Mitchell
bomber that ran into the Empire

aircraft not unlike the Mitchell
bomber that ran into the Empire
State Building.

Bomber that ran into the Empire
State Building.
We were looking at aircraft that

State Building.
We were looking at aircraft that
was lost in the fog, trying to

We were looking at aircraft that
was lost in the fog, trying to
land.

Was lost in the fog, trying to
land.
It was a low-flying, slow-flying

land.
It was a low-flying, slow-flying
707, which was the largest

It was a low-flying, slow-flying
707, which was the largest
aircraft of its time.

707, which was the largest
aircraft of its time.
And so we made calculations, not

aircraft of its time.
And so we made calculations, not
anywhere near the level of

And so we made calculations, not
anywhere near the level of
sophistication that we could

anywhere near the level of
sophistication that we could
today.

Sophistication that we could
today.
But inside of our ability, we

today.
But inside of our ability, we
made calculations of what

But inside of our ability, we
made calculations of what
happened when the airplane goes

made calculations of what
happened when the airplane goes
in and it takes out a huge

happened when the airplane goes
in and it takes out a huge
section of the outside wall of

in and it takes out a huge
section of the outside wall of
the building.

Section of the outside wall of
the building.
And we concluded that it would

the building.
And we concluded that it would
stand.

And we concluded that it would
stand.
It would suffer, but it would

stand.
It would suffer, but it would
stand.

It would suffer, but it would
stand.
And the outside wall would have

stand.
And the outside wall would have
a big hole in it, and the

And the outside wall would have
a big hole in it, and the
building would be in place.

A big hole in it, and the
building would be in place.
What we didn't look at is what

building would be in place.
What we didn't look at is what
happens to all that fuel.

What we didn't look at is what
happens to all that fuel.
And perhaps we could be faulted

happens to all that fuel.
And perhaps we could be faulted
for that, for not doing so.

And perhaps we could be faulted
for that, for not doing so.
But for whatever reason, we

for that, for not doing so.
But for whatever reason, we
didn't look at that question of

But for whatever reason, we
didn't look at that question of
what would happen to the fuel.

Didn't look at that question of
what would happen to the fuel.
In the end, Robertson

what would happen to the fuel.
In the end, Robertson
and his team did everything they

In the end, Robertson
and his team did everything they
could to protect their building

and his team did everything they
could to protect their building
against a 500-year wind: the

could to protect their building
against a 500-year wind: the
worst conceivable gale to which

against a 500-year wind: the
worst conceivable gale to which
the building could be subjected

worst conceivable gale to which
the building could be subjected
in 500 years.

The building could be subjected
in 500 years.
It was inconceivable at the time

in 500 years.
It was inconceivable at the time
that it would also have to be

It was inconceivable at the time
that it would also have to be
protected against a 500-year

that it would also have to be
protected against a 500-year
plane crash or a 500-year fire.

Protected against a 500-year
plane crash or a 500-year fire.
I think, in effect,

plane crash or a 500-year fire.
I think, in effect,
the towers had an Achilles'

I think, in effect,
the towers had an Achilles'
heel, and that was the fire.

The towers had an Achilles'
heel, and that was the fire.
They really didn't know much

heel, and that was the fire.
They really didn't know much
about fire, and they really

They really didn't know much
about fire, and they really
didn't pay much attention to

about fire, and they really
didn't pay much attention to
fire.

Didn't pay much attention to
fire.
The structure they finally came

fire.
The structure they finally came
up with worked just as good as

The structure they finally came
up with worked just as good as
the traditional ones in battling

up with worked just as good as
the traditional ones in battling
the wind and holding up against

the traditional ones in battling
the wind and holding up against
gravity.

The wind and holding up against
gravity.
But they were much lighter.

Gravity.
But they were much lighter.
The steel was lighter, thinner.

But they were much lighter.
The steel was lighter, thinner.
And you know how if you slice up

The steel was lighter, thinner.
And you know how if you slice up
an ice cube and put it in your

And you know how if you slice up
an ice cube and put it in your
drink it will melt faster than

an ice cube and put it in your
drink it will melt faster than
if you have a whole ice cube?

Drink it will melt faster than
if you have a whole ice cube?
Well, that's the way of these

if you have a whole ice cube?
Well, that's the way of these
lighter structures.

Well, that's the way of these
lighter structures.
They would heat up faster in a

lighter structures.
They would heat up faster in a
fire.

They would heat up faster in a
fire.
The real question is: should

fire.
The real question is: should
they have been able to

The real question is: should
they have been able to
anticipate that this was

they have been able to
anticipate that this was
something that they would have

anticipate that this was
something that they would have
to protect against?

Something that they would have
to protect against?
And I just don't know the answer

to protect against?
And I just don't know the answer
to the question.

One of the things
that we have to say about the
Trade Center, with all due

that we have to say about the
Trade Center, with all due
respect to its qualities such as

Trade Center, with all due
respect to its qualities such as
they were, is that it was a

respect to its qualities such as
they were, is that it was a
dinosaur when it went up.

They were, is that it was a
dinosaur when it went up.
It represented a way of building

dinosaur when it went up.
It represented a way of building
that had in fact already begun

It represented a way of building
that had in fact already begun
to be discredited.

That had in fact already begun
to be discredited.
Jane Jacobs' book, "The Death

to be discredited.
Jane Jacobs' book, "The Death
and Life of Great American

Jane Jacobs' book, "The Death
and Life of Great American
Cities," which played so large a

and Life of Great American
Cities," which played so large a
role in shifting people's

Cities," which played so large a
role in shifting people's
viewpoints back toward an

role in shifting people's
viewpoints back toward an
appreciation of the street and

viewpoints back toward an
appreciation of the street and
the real city and the organic

appreciation of the street and
the real city and the organic
nature of cities, had already

the real city and the organic
nature of cities, had already
appeared.

Nature of cities, had already
appeared.
And by the time the Trade Center

appeared.
And by the time the Trade Center
was finished in the '70s, there

And by the time the Trade Center
was finished in the '70s, there
were lots of other things to

was finished in the '70s, there
were lots of other things to
express a sort of shift in

were lots of other things to
express a sort of shift in
attitude.

Express a sort of shift in
attitude.
So the World Trade Center was an

attitude.
So the World Trade Center was an
enormous project with a very

So the World Trade Center was an
enormous project with a very
long gestation period that was

enormous project with a very
long gestation period that was
sort of out of date by the time

long gestation period that was
sort of out of date by the time
it was finished, which made it,

sort of out of date by the time
it was finished, which made it,
in a way, all the sadder.

It was finished, which made it,
in a way, all the sadder.
And then, of course,

in a way, all the sadder.
And then, of course,
the Trade Center's finished at a

And then, of course,
the Trade Center's finished at a
time when the economy is in the

the Trade Center's finished at a
time when the economy is in the
toilet... I think that's the best

time when the economy is in the
toilet... I think that's the best
way to put it.

Toilet... I think that's the best
way to put it.
The Vietnam War has ripped the

way to put it.
The Vietnam War has ripped the
country apart.

The Vietnam War has ripped the
country apart.
The divisiveness of the young

country apart.
The divisiveness of the young
versus the old, the haves versus

The divisiveness of the young
versus the old, the haves versus
the have-nots, had never been

versus the old, the haves versus
the have-nots, had never been
greater than perhaps except in

the have-nots, had never been
greater than perhaps except in
the case of the Civil War.

Greater than perhaps except in
the case of the Civil War.
And there were these two

the case of the Civil War.
And there were these two
monsters, huge, undifferentiated

And there were these two
monsters, huge, undifferentiated
buildings, rising here, and the

monsters, huge, undifferentiated
buildings, rising here, and the
context around them hadn't even

buildings, rising here, and the
context around them hadn't even
been finished.

Context around them hadn't even
been finished.
For three long years,

been finished.
For three long years,
from 1968 to 1971, the steel

For three long years,
from 1968 to 1971, the steel
work on the towers continued, as

from 1968 to 1971, the steel
work on the towers continued, as
the 1960s came and went, and the

work on the towers continued, as
the 1960s came and went, and the
war in Vietnam raged on,

the 1960s came and went, and the
war in Vietnam raged on,
wreaking havoc with the American

war in Vietnam raged on,
wreaking havoc with the American
economy, straining the postwar

wreaking havoc with the American
economy, straining the postwar
global order, and threatening to

economy, straining the postwar
global order, and threatening to
tear the nation's social fabric

global order, and threatening to
tear the nation's social fabric
apart.

Tear the nation's social fabric
apart.
In April 1970, progress on the

apart.
In April 1970, progress on the
towers was slowed when scores of

In April 1970, progress on the
towers was slowed when scores of
construction workers clashed

towers was slowed when scores of
construction workers clashed
violently with antiwar

construction workers clashed
violently with antiwar
demonstrators on the streets of

violently with antiwar
demonstrators on the streets of
lower Manhattan.

Demonstrators on the streets of
lower Manhattan.
By then, public sentiment about

lower Manhattan.
By then, public sentiment about
the project and its builders had

By then, public sentiment about
the project and its builders had
begun to shift dramatically, and

the project and its builders had
begun to shift dramatically, and
even Austin Tobin had begun to

begun to shift dramatically, and
even Austin Tobin had begun to
lose his way.

Even Austin Tobin had begun to
lose his way.
As they're building

lose his way.
As they're building
the World Trade Center, after

As they're building
the World Trade Center, after
he's given everything he had to

the World Trade Center, after
he's given everything he had to
put it up, he's starting to

he's given everything he had to
put it up, he's starting to
battle with New Jersey governor

put it up, he's starting to
battle with New Jersey governor
Cahill.

Battle with New Jersey governor
Cahill.
He's losing the battle on mass

Cahill.
He's losing the battle on mass
transit.

He's losing the battle on mass
transit.
His reputation in the press is

transit.
His reputation in the press is
taking a dive.

His reputation in the press is
taking a dive.
He's always had very careful

taking a dive.
He's always had very careful
control of the press, partly

He's always had very careful
control of the press, partly
through his chief press officer,

control of the press, partly
through his chief press officer,
Lee Jaffe, through all those

through his chief press officer,
Lee Jaffe, through all those
years, very carefully managed

Lee Jaffe, through all those
years, very carefully managed
kind of guy, someone who didn't

years, very carefully managed
kind of guy, someone who didn't
have to deal with these little

kind of guy, someone who didn't
have to deal with these little
details like legislatures,

have to deal with these little
details like legislatures,
mayors, the citizenry of New

details like legislatures,
mayors, the citizenry of New
York City.

Mayors, the citizenry of New
York City.
And by the time the towers are

York City.
And by the time the towers are
finished, it's no longer fun for

And by the time the towers are
finished, it's no longer fun for
him.

Finished, it's no longer fun for
him.
He's really become embittered.

Him.
He's really become embittered.
As the structures

He's really become embittered.
As the structures
began to dwarf even the highest

As the structures
began to dwarf even the highest
of the city's old Art Deco

began to dwarf even the highest
of the city's old Art Deco
towers, the excitement and early

of the city's old Art Deco
towers, the excitement and early
optimism about their immense

towers, the excitement and early
optimism about their immense
size began to fade away.

Optimism about their immense
size began to fade away.
I remember being

size began to fade away.
I remember being
offended that the title for the

I remember being
offended that the title for the
tallest building was being taken

offended that the title for the
tallest building was being taken
away from the Empire State

tallest building was being taken
away from the Empire State
Building, a building that I

away from the Empire State
Building, a building that I
liked much more and felt

Building, a building that I
liked much more and felt
represented the spirit of New

liked much more and felt
represented the spirit of New
York much better than the World

represented the spirit of New
York much better than the World
Trade Center.

York much better than the World
Trade Center.
And I remember thinking, you

Trade Center.
And I remember thinking, you
know, this whole thing is a sort

And I remember thinking, you
know, this whole thing is a sort
of gargantuan piece of banality.

Know, this whole thing is a sort
of gargantuan piece of banality.
As always happens in

of gargantuan piece of banality.
As always happens in
New York, buildings come in

As always happens in
New York, buildings come in
cycles of boom and bust.

New York, buildings come in
cycles of boom and bust.
And, generally, the tallest

cycles of boom and bust.
And, generally, the tallest
buildings come before the break

And, generally, the tallest
buildings come before the break
in the cycle, before a crash.

Buildings come before the break
in the cycle, before a crash.
And that was the case with the

in the cycle, before a crash.
And that was the case with the
World Trade Center.

And that was the case with the
World Trade Center.
The fiscal crisis, the energy

World Trade Center.
The fiscal crisis, the energy
crisis, all kinds of crises in

The fiscal crisis, the energy
crisis, all kinds of crises in
New York, a social crisis as

crisis, all kinds of crises in
New York, a social crisis as
well, befell New York in the

New York, a social crisis as
well, befell New York in the
mid-1970s and affected the

well, befell New York in the
mid-1970s and affected the
fortunes of the city in many

mid-1970s and affected the
fortunes of the city in many
ways beyond the sheer revenues

fortunes of the city in many
ways beyond the sheer revenues
of trade and of business.

Ways beyond the sheer revenues
of trade and of business.
And still the twin

of trade and of business.
And still the twin
towers rose, as the city below

And still the twin
towers rose, as the city below
them sank deeper and deeper into

towers rose, as the city below
them sank deeper and deeper into
social and economic disarray.

Them sank deeper and deeper into
social and economic disarray.
Finally, at 11:30 a.m. on the

social and economic disarray.
Finally, at 11:30 a.m. on the
cold, foggy morning of

Finally, at 11:30 a.m. on the
cold, foggy morning of
Wednesday, December 23, 1970,

cold, foggy morning of
Wednesday, December 23, 1970,
the final column of the north

Wednesday, December 23, 1970,
the final column of the north
tower... a 36-foot-long, four-ton

the final column of the north
tower... a 36-foot-long, four-ton
piece of steel, draped with a

tower... a 36-foot-long, four-ton
piece of steel, draped with a
large American flag... was

piece of steel, draped with a
large American flag... was
hoisted into place on the 110th

large American flag... was
hoisted into place on the 110th
floor.

Hoisted into place on the 110th
floor.
To celebrate the momentous

floor.
To celebrate the momentous
occasion, workers raised a 30-

To celebrate the momentous
occasion, workers raised a 30-
foot-tall Christmas tree on the

occasion, workers raised a 30-
foot-tall Christmas tree on the
southeast corner of the

foot-tall Christmas tree on the
southeast corner of the
building.

Southeast corner of the
building.
December 1970.

Building.
December 1970.
The reason I remember it is the

December 1970.
The reason I remember it is the
last piece of steel went up and

The reason I remember it is the
last piece of steel went up and
the next day the first tenant

last piece of steel went up and
the next day the first tenant
moved into the bottom of the

the next day the first tenant
moved into the bottom of the
building.

Moved into the bottom of the
building.
Actually, two tenants moved in

building.
Actually, two tenants moved in
that day, on the ninth and tenth

Actually, two tenants moved in
that day, on the ninth and tenth
floors.

That day, on the ninth and tenth
floors.
Seven months later,

floors.
Seven months later,
on July 19, 1971, the topping-

Seven months later,
on July 19, 1971, the topping-
out ceremony was repeated on the

on July 19, 1971, the topping-
out ceremony was repeated on the
south tower.

Out ceremony was repeated on the
south tower.
In all, a total of 192,000 tons

south tower.
In all, a total of 192,000 tons
of structural steel, nearly four

In all, a total of 192,000 tons
of structural steel, nearly four
times that of the Empire State

of structural steel, nearly four
times that of the Empire State
Building, had been raised 1,360

times that of the Empire State
Building, had been raised 1,360
feet into the sky, 25 stories

Building, had been raised 1,360
feet into the sky, 25 stories
taller than the top floor of Al

feet into the sky, 25 stories
taller than the top floor of Al
Smith's beloved uptown landmark,

taller than the top floor of Al
Smith's beloved uptown landmark,
and 110 feet higher than the tip

Smith's beloved uptown landmark,
and 110 feet higher than the tip
of its great Art Deco mooring

and 110 feet higher than the tip
of its great Art Deco mooring
mast.

Of its great Art Deco mooring
mast.
To a remarkable degree, however,

mast.
To a remarkable degree, however,
the achievement would go all but

To a remarkable degree, however,
the achievement would go all but
ignored, obscured by the growing

the achievement would go all but
ignored, obscured by the growing
troubles of the city below, and

ignored, obscured by the growing
troubles of the city below, and
by the rising tide of criticism

troubles of the city below, and
by the rising tide of criticism
that now began to engulf the

by the rising tide of criticism
that now began to engulf the
project just as it neared

that now began to engulf the
project just as it neared
completion.

Project just as it neared
completion.
There was some sense

completion.
There was some sense
that there was something insane

There was some sense
that there was something insane
here that was being done,

that there was something insane
here that was being done,
because there was no need for

here that was being done,
because there was no need for
it.

Because there was no need for
it.
This was a city that was getting

it.
This was a city that was getting
into more and more trouble,

This was a city that was getting
into more and more trouble,
where the city finances were

into more and more trouble,
where the city finances were
terrible, where crime was

where the city finances were
terrible, where crime was
rising, where all of the

terrible, where crime was
rising, where all of the
problems that then came to a

rising, where all of the
problems that then came to a
head in '75, where the almost

problems that then came to a
head in '75, where the almost
bankruptcy of the city, were all

head in '75, where the almost
bankruptcy of the city, were all
there.

Bankruptcy of the city, were all
there.
And, yet, they were putting this

there.
And, yet, they were putting this
building up!

And, yet, they were putting this
building up!
You know, you'd say, "What's

building up!
You know, you'd say, "What's
going on?"

You know, you'd say, "What's
going on?"
From the very start,

going on?"
From the very start,
the response in the press to

From the very start,
the response in the press to
Yamasaki's towers was savage.

The response in the press to
Yamasaki's towers was savage.
One critic dismissed them as "a

Yamasaki's towers was savage.
One critic dismissed them as "a
standing monument to

One critic dismissed them as "a
standing monument to
architectural boredom"; another

standing monument to
architectural boredom"; another
as "the largest aluminum siding

architectural boredom"; another
as "the largest aluminum siding
job in the history of the

as "the largest aluminum siding
job in the history of the
world."

job in the history of the
world."
"The towers are pure

world."
"The towers are pure
technology, the lobbies are pure

"The towers are pure
technology, the lobbies are pure
schmaltz, and the impact on New

technology, the lobbies are pure
schmaltz, and the impact on New
York is pure speculation.

Schmaltz, and the impact on New
York is pure speculation.
The windows are so narrow that

York is pure speculation.
The windows are so narrow that
one of the miraculous benefits

The windows are so narrow that
one of the miraculous benefits
of the tall building, the

one of the miraculous benefits
of the tall building, the
panoramic view out, is

of the tall building, the
panoramic view out, is
destroyed.

Panoramic view out, is
destroyed.
These are big buildings, but

destroyed.
These are big buildings, but
they are not great

These are big buildings, but
they are not great
architecture."... Ada Louise

they are not great
architecture."... Ada Louise
Huxtable, 1971.

Architecture."... Ada Louise
Huxtable, 1971.
Yamasaki himself,

Huxtable, 1971.
Yamasaki himself,
though privately devastated by

Yamasaki himself,
though privately devastated by
the storm of criticism,

though privately devastated by
the storm of criticism,
stubbornly defended his design,

the storm of criticism,
stubbornly defended his design,
arguing publicly that the

stubbornly defended his design,
arguing publicly that the
restricted views kept office

arguing publicly that the
restricted views kept office
workers focused on their tasks.

Restricted views kept office
workers focused on their tasks.
Of course people

workers focused on their tasks.
Of course people
hated, you know, working in the

Of course people
hated, you know, working in the
Trade Center.

Hated, you know, working in the
Trade Center.
The reason it was filled up was

Trade Center.
The reason it was filled up was
because the space was cheaper

The reason it was filled up was
because the space was cheaper
than a comparable space in lower

because the space was cheaper
than a comparable space in lower
buildings.

Than a comparable space in lower
buildings.
They hated it because the

buildings.
They hated it because the
elevator systems... nuisance to

They hated it because the
elevator systems... nuisance to
go up and down... was like you

elevator systems... nuisance to
go up and down... was like you
planned whether you had to

go up and down... was like you
planned whether you had to
actually leave your office

planned whether you had to
actually leave your office
because it was so inconvenient.

Actually leave your office
because it was so inconvenient.
I think the Trade

because it was so inconvenient.
I think the Trade
Center was also a terrible

I think the Trade
Center was also a terrible
failure on an urban-design level

Center was also a terrible
failure on an urban-design level
or a public-space level.

Failure on an urban-design level
or a public-space level.
The plaza was dead.

Or a public-space level.
The plaza was dead.
The plaza managed to be dead,

The plaza was dead.
The plaza managed to be dead,
not only in day-to-day use or

The plaza managed to be dead,
not only in day-to-day use or
even for the occasional festival

not only in day-to-day use or
even for the occasional festival
that could never quite fill it,

even for the occasional festival
that could never quite fill it,
but even in the movies, when

that could never quite fill it,
but even in the movies, when
they made "The Wiz," or when

but even in the movies, when
they made "The Wiz," or when
they made the second version of

they made "The Wiz," or when
they made the second version of
"King Kong," it still couldn't

they made the second version of
"King Kong," it still couldn't
come to life.

"King Kong," it still couldn't
come to life.
It just resisted vitality.

Come to life.
It just resisted vitality.
The impact of the

It just resisted vitality.
The impact of the
Trade Center on the lower

The impact of the
Trade Center on the lower
Manhattan environment was really

Trade Center on the lower
Manhattan environment was really
rather devastating.

Manhattan environment was really
rather devastating.
The plaza in front of the World

rather devastating.
The plaza in front of the World
Trade Center was a concrete

The plaza in front of the World
Trade Center was a concrete
football field.

Trade Center was a concrete
football field.
It was not an appealing place at

football field.
It was not an appealing place at
all.

It was not an appealing place at
all.
Most of the shopping and

all.
Most of the shopping and
activity took place underground,

Most of the shopping and
activity took place underground,
which was at a further remove

activity took place underground,
which was at a further remove
from the street life of New

which was at a further remove
from the street life of New
York.

From the street life of New
York.
The buildings only succeeded as

York.
The buildings only succeeded as
abstract objects.

The buildings only succeeded as
abstract objects.
They did succeed ultimately

abstract objects.
They did succeed ultimately
pretty well as abstract objects,

They did succeed ultimately
pretty well as abstract objects,
but it is not out of abstract,

pretty well as abstract objects,
but it is not out of abstract,
geometric forms that you make a

but it is not out of abstract,
geometric forms that you make a
city.

Geometric forms that you make a
city.
You make a city out of street

city.
You make a city out of street
life, and the World Trade Center

You make a city out of street
life, and the World Trade Center
pushed away the street life of

life, and the World Trade Center
pushed away the street life of
lower Manhattan in favor of

pushed away the street life of
lower Manhattan in favor of
something very different.

Lower Manhattan in favor of
something very different.
For the Port

something very different.
For the Port
Authority, meanwhile, far more

For the Port
Authority, meanwhile, far more
immediate problems loomed.

Authority, meanwhile, far more
immediate problems loomed.
Almost immediately, the basic

immediate problems loomed.
Almost immediately, the basic
premise upon which the towers

Almost immediately, the basic
premise upon which the towers
had been built... the

premise upon which the towers
had been built... the
desirability of concentrating

had been built... the
desirability of concentrating
trade-related businesses under a

desirability of concentrating
trade-related businesses under a
single roof... was shown to have

trade-related businesses under a
single roof... was shown to have
little basis in reality.

Single roof... was shown to have
little basis in reality.
Despite vigorous efforts to

little basis in reality.
Despite vigorous efforts to
promote the complex, few tenants

Despite vigorous efforts to
promote the complex, few tenants
signed up.

Promote the complex, few tenants
signed up.
At the beginning,

signed up.
At the beginning,
because there was not nearly

At the beginning,
because there was not nearly
enough business to fill it, it

because there was not nearly
enough business to fill it, it
was bailed out by its builders.

Enough business to fill it, it
was bailed out by its builders.
Governor Nelson Rockefeller

was bailed out by its builders.
Governor Nelson Rockefeller
committed to putting offices of

Governor Nelson Rockefeller
committed to putting offices of
the State of New York into one

committed to putting offices of
the State of New York into one
tower, and the Port Authority

the State of New York into one
tower, and the Port Authority
moved all of its own offices

tower, and the Port Authority
moved all of its own offices
into the other.

Moved all of its own offices
into the other.
So, in fact, it was mostly a big

into the other.
So, in fact, it was mostly a big
civic boondoggle, in effect, and

So, in fact, it was mostly a big
civic boondoggle, in effect, and
had only a minimal amount of

civic boondoggle, in effect, and
had only a minimal amount of
tenants who were actually part

had only a minimal amount of
tenants who were actually part
of the original concept.

Tenants who were actually part
of the original concept.
By the early 1970s,

of the original concept.
By the early 1970s,
the World Trade Center, whose

By the early 1970s,
the World Trade Center, whose
final price tag had soared past

the World Trade Center, whose
final price tag had soared past
$1 billion, was losing $10

final price tag had soared past
$1 billion, was losing $10
million to $15 million a year,

$1 billion, was losing $10
million to $15 million a year,
with no end in sight.

Million to $15 million a year,
with no end in sight.
And there was even worse news

with no end in sight.
And there was even worse news
for the downtown real estate

And there was even worse news
for the downtown real estate
market.

For the downtown real estate
market.
Far from revitalizing the

market.
Far from revitalizing the
fortunes of Lower Manhattan, the

Far from revitalizing the
fortunes of Lower Manhattan, the
World Trade Center had flooded

fortunes of Lower Manhattan, the
World Trade Center had flooded
the market with millions of

World Trade Center had flooded
the market with millions of
square feet of unwanted office

the market with millions of
square feet of unwanted office
space, deepening the district's

square feet of unwanted office
space, deepening the district's
economic woes still further.

Space, deepening the district's
economic woes still further.
So by somehow

economic woes still further.
So by somehow
bringing all these many

So by somehow
bringing all these many
millions, ten million square

bringing all these many
millions, ten million square
feet of office space on line, at

millions, ten million square
feet of office space on line, at
the time that there's an

feet of office space on line, at
the time that there's an
economic recession, I'm pulling

the time that there's an
economic recession, I'm pulling
people out of your building to

economic recession, I'm pulling
people out of your building to
come into mine, subsidized by

people out of your building to
come into mine, subsidized by
the government.

Come into mine, subsidized by
the government.
Your building then is not worth

the government.
Your building then is not worth
as much, because your building,

Your building then is not worth
as much, because your building,
by the way, does pay taxes.

As much, because your building,
by the way, does pay taxes.
And yet you've got fewer

by the way, does pay taxes.
And yet you've got fewer
tenants.

And yet you've got fewer
tenants.
So that what we have done here

tenants.
So that what we have done here
in New York city was, according

So that what we have done here
in New York city was, according
to the critics was, we built a

in New York city was, according
to the critics was, we built a
new building that we don't need.

To the critics was, we built a
new building that we don't need.
We've reduced the value of the

new building that we don't need.
We've reduced the value of the
old buildings that we already

We've reduced the value of the
old buildings that we already
had and were paying taxes and

old buildings that we already
had and were paying taxes and
supporting the police and the

had and were paying taxes and
supporting the police and the
schools and fire and everything

supporting the police and the
schools and fire and everything
else, so we've, in a sense,

schools and fire and everything
else, so we've, in a sense,
compounded our mistake.

Else, so we've, in a sense,
compounded our mistake.
I think when the

compounded our mistake.
I think when the
Trade Center was finished in

I think when the
Trade Center was finished in
1973, we were just at the moment

Trade Center was finished in
1973, we were just at the moment
when New York was about to begin

1973, we were just at the moment
when New York was about to begin
descending rather than

when New York was about to begin
descending rather than
ascending.

Descending rather than
ascending.
The fiscal crisis would hit.

Ascending.
The fiscal crisis would hit.
The buildings would remain

The fiscal crisis would hit.
The buildings would remain
largely empty for many years.

The buildings would remain
largely empty for many years.
They would consume the kind of

largely empty for many years.
They would consume the kind of
energy on their floors with

They would consume the kind of
energy on their floors with
fluorescent lights that had only

energy on their floors with
fluorescent lights that had only
one switch and were simply on or

fluorescent lights that had only
one switch and were simply on or
off.

One switch and were simply on or
off.
There was in every way a kind of

off.
There was in every way a kind of
symbol of empty wastefulness

There was in every way a kind of
symbol of empty wastefulness
that represented an overreaching

symbol of empty wastefulness
that represented an overreaching
ambition, perhaps on the part of

that represented an overreaching
ambition, perhaps on the part of
Americans, and a blind eye to

ambition, perhaps on the part of
Americans, and a blind eye to
the environment and to other

Americans, and a blind eye to
the environment and to other
kinds of social equations that

the environment and to other
kinds of social equations that
seemed to be lost in this sort

kinds of social equations that
seemed to be lost in this sort
of blank symbolism of these two

seemed to be lost in this sort
of blank symbolism of these two
great icons.

On the rainy,
windswept morning of April 4,
1973, while work on the upper

windswept morning of April 4,
1973, while work on the upper
floors of the two towers

1973, while work on the upper
floors of the two towers
continued, the Port Authority

floors of the two towers
continued, the Port Authority
held a dedication ceremony for

continued, the Port Authority
held a dedication ceremony for
the complex: a somber event

held a dedication ceremony for
the complex: a somber event
forced by bad weather to move

the complex: a somber event
forced by bad weather to move
from the outdoor plaza to the

forced by bad weather to move
from the outdoor plaza to the
lobby of the north tower.

From the outdoor plaza to the
lobby of the north tower.
The guest of honor, Secretary of

lobby of the north tower.
The guest of honor, Secretary of
Labor Peter Brennan, never

The guest of honor, Secretary of
Labor Peter Brennan, never
showed up; nor did New York's

Labor Peter Brennan, never
showed up; nor did New York's
mayor, John Lindsay; nor, to the

showed up; nor did New York's
mayor, John Lindsay; nor, to the
astonishment of those present,

mayor, John Lindsay; nor, to the
astonishment of those present,
did the man most responsible for

astonishment of those present,
did the man most responsible for
the project, Austin Tobin, who

did the man most responsible for
the project, Austin Tobin, who
had retired from the Port

the project, Austin Tobin, who
had retired from the Port
Authority the year before, worn

had retired from the Port
Authority the year before, worn
out and disheartened.

Authority the year before, worn
out and disheartened.
When a reporter asked him why he

out and disheartened.
When a reporter asked him why he
had missed the historic

When a reporter asked him why he
had missed the historic
ceremony, Tobin replied simply,

had missed the historic
ceremony, Tobin replied simply,
"Because it was raining."

ceremony, Tobin replied simply,
"Because it was raining."
He was not there at

"Because it was raining."
He was not there at
the official opening of the

He was not there at
the official opening of the
World Trade Center.

The official opening of the
World Trade Center.
He never moved into the World

World Trade Center.
He never moved into the World
Trade Center.

He never moved into the World
Trade Center.
And he really hardly goes down

Trade Center.
And he really hardly goes down
there until he is dying of

And he really hardly goes down
there until he is dying of
cancer.

There until he is dying of
cancer.
So is it sad?

Cancer.
So is it sad?
Yes, it's extremely sad.

So is it sad?
Yes, it's extremely sad.
It's a very sad and unexpected

Yes, it's extremely sad.
It's a very sad and unexpected
end to the story, because this

It's a very sad and unexpected
end to the story, because this
guy was one of the most powerful

end to the story, because this
guy was one of the most powerful
and most efficient and admired

guy was one of the most powerful
and most efficient and admired
and studied bureaucratic leaders

and most efficient and admired
and studied bureaucratic leaders
in the history of the United

and studied bureaucratic leaders
in the history of the United
States.

In the history of the United
States.
But his crowning achievement

States.
But his crowning achievement
turns out to be, in the end, a

But his crowning achievement
turns out to be, in the end, a
big drop of bitterness for him.

Turns out to be, in the end, a
big drop of bitterness for him.
You know, we named

big drop of bitterness for him.
You know, we named
the plaza the Austin Tobin

You know, we named
the plaza the Austin Tobin
Plaza, long after he left.

The plaza the Austin Tobin
Plaza, long after he left.
And Austin, we knew, was very

Plaza, long after he left.
And Austin, we knew, was very
sick.

And Austin, we knew, was very
sick.
And I think of all the projects

sick.
And I think of all the projects
that the Port Authority did, I

And I think of all the projects
that the Port Authority did, I
think Austin felt that the Trade

that the Port Authority did, I
think Austin felt that the Trade
Center was his greatest.

Think Austin felt that the Trade
Center was his greatest.
And I got a call one day, and he

Center was his greatest.
And I got a call one day, and he
came down in a wheelchair, and I

And I got a call one day, and he
came down in a wheelchair, and I
wheeled him out to the plaza.

Came down in a wheelchair, and I
wheeled him out to the plaza.
And he asked if he could be left

wheeled him out to the plaza.
And he asked if he could be left
alone.

And he asked if he could be left
alone.
And Austin sat in that

alone.
And Austin sat in that
wheelchair for almost two hours.

And Austin sat in that
wheelchair for almost two hours.
And he looked at the plaza and

wheelchair for almost two hours.
And he looked at the plaza and
the great sculpture that was in

And he looked at the plaza and
the great sculpture that was in
the plaza, and he could see the

the great sculpture that was in
the plaza, and he could see the
hotel and the Customs House and

the plaza, and he could see the
hotel and the Customs House and
the commodity building and the

hotel and the Customs House and
the commodity building and the
Nagare sculpture... is

the commodity building and the
Nagare sculpture... is
beautiful... and Fritz Koenig's

Nagare sculpture... is
beautiful... and Fritz Koenig's
sculpture, which was in the

beautiful... and Fritz Koenig's
sculpture, which was in the
middle of that fountain.

Sculpture, which was in the
middle of that fountain.
Those were great works of art.

Middle of that fountain.
Those were great works of art.
And I remember leaving him

Those were great works of art.
And I remember leaving him
there, and then I came and got

And I remember leaving him
there, and then I came and got
him, and I never saw him again

there, and then I came and got
him, and I never saw him again
after that.

Him, and I never saw him again
after that.
He died almost within weeks

after that.
He died almost within weeks
after that one moment, two

He died almost within weeks
after that one moment, two
hours, being out there looking

after that one moment, two
hours, being out there looking
at the plaza of the World Trade

hours, being out there looking
at the plaza of the World Trade
Center, named after him.